The Textual History and Reception of Śāntideva's Śikṣāsamuccaya
Articles/The Textual History and Reception of Śāntideva's Śikṣāsamuccaya
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This article by Karma Phuntsho provides a comprehensive overview of the Śikṣāsamuccaya's origins, spread, and influence. It traces the text's composition in eighth-century India, its early translations into Tibetan and Chinese, and subsequent transmission through various Buddhist lineages. The study explores the text's relationship with the Bodhicaryāvatāra and its importance in Tibetan Buddhism, particularly within the Kadam tradition. It also covers the Śikṣāsamuccaya's rediscovery by Western academics and subsequent scholarly analyses in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.
This thorough examination offers a rich resource for those interested in the Śikṣāsamuccaya and its place in Buddhist literature. The detailed account of translations, commentaries, and scholarly works provides a detailed analysis of textual and historical resources related to the text. By discussing the text's relationship with other Buddhist works and its role in different traditions, the article also helps readers understand its significance in Buddhist thought and practice. The exploration of ongoing academic debates and recent scholarship demonstrates the text's continued relevance, making it an excellent starting point for both academic researchers and Buddhist practitioners.The Origins of the Śikṣāsamuccaya
The Śikṣāsamuccaya, or The Compendium of Training, and its verse summary, Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā, attributed to the poet-philosopher Śāntideva, were in circulation by the end of eighth century, as evidenced by their translation into Tibetan by Yeshe De and his collaborators around the turn of the ninth century. Although the colophon of the translation does not provide any date, we can infer the texts to have reached Tibet by then from the names of the translators. Moreover, the translation of The Compendium of Training is listed in The Denkarma Catalog, which is claimed to be the earliest list of translations of Buddhist works into Tibetan and was most likely produced by 824.
Based on these and the general agreement among scholars that Śāntideva lived in and around the beginning of the eighth century, we can safely surmise that The Compendium of Training was composed in the eighth century. Yet, it is difficult to provide a more specific date and further information about the origin and early days of The Compendium of Training and also of The Way of the Bodhisattva (Bodhicaryāvatāra), the other main work attributed to Śāntideva. Akira Saito speculates that the shorter version of The Way of the Bodhisattva may have been composed in the early eighth century and The Compendium of Training in the late eighth century.[1] With hardly any convincing evidence, such a gap between the composition of two related works and even the sequence of their composition is far from conclusive, as will be discussed below.
According to legendary stories of Śāntideva we have from later sources and those commonly told in Tibetan monastic and modern Dharma centers—stories which appear to have spread from Vibhūticandra in the thirteenth century—the two works were composed by Śāntideva in Nalanda while he lived there as an ostensibly lazy monk. According to these accounts, Śāntideva had already composed these two texts, and another short text entitled The Compendium of Sūtras (Sūtrasamuccaya), by the time his fellow monks made him sit on a tall throne and conduct a public recitation to mock his indolence.
Śāntideva is said to have miraculously climbed on the high throne set up to mock him and, once on the pedestal, asked his challengers whether they wanted to hear a teaching which was already known or something new. Hoping to embarrass him, the assembly asked him for something new, and Śāntideva is supposed to have said: "The Compendium of Training is too long and The Compendium of Sūtra is too short for the occasion. I shall recite The Way of the Bodhisattva."[2] The traditional commentators on Śāntideva's works surmise from this that Śāntideva had already composed these works by the time he divulged them. Thus, in the second verse of The Way of the Bodhisattva, Śāntideva says, "I have composed this (kṛtaṃ medaṃ, ngas 'di brtsams)," implying that the main body of The Way of the Bodhisattva had already been finished by the time he recited it. Furthermore, in chapter 5, verses 104–6 of the longer and most popular version of The Way of the Bodhisattva, he exhorts his audience to read The Compendium of Training and the shorter text, The Compendium of Sūtras, indicating that these two were also composed by then.
Śāntideva is believed to have departed from Nalanda as he recited The Way of the Bodhisattva. When two monks from Nalanda, who possessed the power of memory, approached him later at the stūpa Pelyonchen (དཔལ་ཡོན་ཅན་), identified with Dhanyakataka in Amravati, and asked him about the other two compositions he referred to during his recitation, Śāntideva is said to have instructed them that they can be found on the beam of his monastic cell in Nalanda. A short, old introduction to The Way of the Bodhisattva, however, records that Śāntideva left Nalanda after the recitation, as he found himself being spiritually distracted by the veneration and offerings he received following his astounding performance.[3] When approached by monks wishing to consult him on the size of The Way of the Bodhisattva and the whereabouts of The Compendium of Training, he is said to have shared that the latter could be found in his monastic cell and that the salutation verses from the latter should be added to the former, as the former did not have salutation verses. Based on these accounts, traditional scholars and followers believe that both The Way of the Bodhisattva and The Compendium of Training were composed during Śāntideva's days at Nalanda.
There is also no real disagreement among scholars regarding the authorship of these texts, given that the traditional accounts of their origin and the colophons of the texts attribute these books to Śāntideva. However, it is worth noting that the shorter version of The Way of the Bodhisattva, discovered in the twentieth century in the Dunhuang caves, gives in the colophon one Lodrö Mizepa (Akṣayamati) as the author, which both traditional and modern scholars generally accept to be an alias of Śāntideva. The crowd at Nalanda is said to have claimed that Śāntideva was Bodhisattva Akṣayamati when he performed his impressive recitation. A commentary on The Way of Bodhisattva by Atiśa, which contains The Wheel of Weapons, a condensed practical presentation of The Way of the Bodhisattva in eleven lines using the symbol of a wheel, also presents the author of The Way of the Bodhisattva as Akṣayamati. This further confirms the identity of Akṣayamati and Śantideva.
Regarding the author, a minor note may also be taken of the title ācarya, or lopen (སློབ་དཔོན་), generally used for Śāntideva in the colophons of The Way of the Bodhisattva and The Compendium of Training, while the verse summary of The Compendium of Training gives the title khenpo (མཁན་པོ་), or abbot, although there are no records or stories of Śāntideva serving as an abbot of any place. This title may have been accorded to Śāntideva by the translators given his monastic status and level of learning, at least during the time he composed the text. The other common title applied to Śāntideva is jinaputra (རྒྱལ་སྲས་) to highlight his bodhisattva character, and sometimes the title ārya ('འཕགས་པ་), which elevates him to the rank of enlightened and liberated beings, is also used. Are these different titles, then, used for the same person, or could they refer to different persons? Furthermore, is the author of The Compendium of Training the same as The Way of the Bodhisattva as tradition claims?
The common authorship of The Compendium of Training and The Way of the Bodhisattva, or at least a very close connection between the two texts in their formative period, can be confirmed from the internal content of the texts. While The Way of the Bodhisattva is an original composition in verse, The Compendium of Training is largely an anthology of citations from different sūtra sources on which the verse composition is based. Thus, for most references mentioned in The Way of the Bodhisattva in verse, one can find the related passages from sūtras cited in The Compendium of Training. In several places, the verses included in The Way of the Bodhisattva are also found in The Compendium of Training, which has led scholars to speculate on which of the two texts could have been composed earlier. Saito, in his article on the relationship between the two works of Śāntideva,[4] argues that the shorter and earlier version of The Way of the Bodhisattva, which was more recently discovered at Dunhuang and is made up of some 702.5 verses, was composed before The Compendium of Training, and the longer version of The Way of the Bodhisattva is a later, revised work containing 913 verses written after the completion of The Compendium of Training. Paul Harrison seems to generally concur with this sequence[5] and distinguishes the earlier one as the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra and the later one as the Bodhicaryāvatāra based respectively on the titles found in the Dunhuang and extant Sanskrit versions.
While their textual analysis for the sequence of the composition of three texts is convincing, it is definitely not conclusive enough to rule out an alternative process of composition. For one, given the intricate connection between the two texts and also the traditional claim that both were available by the time Śāntideva revealed them to his audience, it is plausible that the two were produced in an iterative process with the author going back and forth between the two texts to refine them. With no strict culture of publication dates that we are used to having today, there may have been several versions of the two texts. Not all verses in the shorter version are preserved in the longer version (e.g., 8.5 verses in chapter 9) just as over 210.5 verses in the longer version are not found in the shorter version. Similarly, The Compendium of Training, as Harrison has shown,[6] has one verse which appears only in the shorter version and quite a number of verses which appear only in the longer version. Thus, instead of seeing the shorter and longer versions of The Way of the Bodhisattva as two separate works, it would be more accurate to see them as one work at different stages of revision and emendation.
This also concurs with the traditional claims of at least three versions of The Way of Bodhisattva being available in Kashmir, Madhyadeśa, and the eastern part of India. We can easily imagine how different drafts may have found their way to different locations. Even the title Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra for the earlier version and Bodhicaryāvatāra for the later one is not straightforward, as the two texts and commentaries on them have both versions of the title. However, it must be noted that there appears to be some Tibetan scholars in the thirteenth century who argued that the shorter version attributed to Akṣayamati and the longer version credited to Śāntideva are two separate works. Butön, who seems to have had access to both the shorter and longer versions of The Way of the Bodhisattva and to have also noted that the three old catalogs of imperial Tibet mention The Way of the Bodhisattva to be of some 600 verses, asserted that the two are the same work except for the difference in division of chapters and discrepancies in earlier and later translations.[7]
Going by the usual monastic procedure of study and composition, it is probable that Śāntideva initially compiled the citations from the sūtras, either in the manner of taking notes in the course of his study or with a specific intention to systematically present the bodhisattva precepts and practices, and having done so captured their message in his own poetic composition of The Way of the Bodhisattva. He may have collected the important passages from the sūtras and at the same time inserted occasional and haphazard comments and summaries in both prose and verse by himself. This would perhaps explain Harrison's point that Śāntideva's verses in The Compendium of Training, of which there are some 160, "do not form a single series, coherently arranged, with a logical thematic progression."[8]
Granted that Śāntideva undertook such compilation, he would have already had the bulk of the text, which would eventually become his anthology entitled The Compendium of Training, before the composition of The Way of the Bodhisattva. It is hard to imagine that Śāntideva collected the citations only after he composed The Way of the Bodhisattva, which clearly epitomizes the citations he compiled in The Compendium of Training. Thus, it is plausible that Śāntideva first compiled the bulk of what was to become The Compendium of Training when he read through the vast number of Mahāyāna scriptures but without giving it the title. Having done so, he may have produced his original verse summary in the form of The Way of the Bodhisattva. Interestingly, this sequence is what the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, a preeminent promoter of Śāntideva's works in our times, gives in one of his public teachings.[9] The old short account of The Way of the Bodhisattva cited earlier also states that when the three monks (other accounts have two) consulted Śāntideva on the verse number of The Way of the Bodhisattva and his reference to the two other texts, he is said to have instructed them that the salutation verses from The Compendium of Training should be added to The Way of the Bodhisattva. This also points to how The Compendium of Training may have existed at least during the same time as The Way of the Bodhisattva, and both may have gone through an iterative process in their origin with several phases of additions and revisions.
We can get a hint of this sequence from verses 5 and 6 of the first chapter of The Compendium of Training and their near identical appearance in the first two verses of The Way of the Bodhisattva. In The Compendium of Training, Śāntideva says he will state "in brief through actual words" (samuccita artha vākyaiḥ), by which he perhaps means direct quotation, and that he would do so having "wished to practice in one's own mind" (svamano bhāvayituṃ mamedam iṣṭam), whereas in The Way of the Bodhisattva these phrases are slightly modified to read "in brief according to the scriptures (yathāgamaṃ samāsāt) and composed to accustom it in one's own mind" (svamano vāsayituṃ kṛtaṃ mamedaṃ). We can take this to suggest that when he wrote The Compendium of Training, he was compiling or relying on "actual words" or citations of the sūtras and only "wished" or intended to do so, whereas when the longer version of The Way of the Bodhisattva was produced, he claimed to have "composed it" (kṛtaṃ) based on scriptures. However, it may be noted that as this verse does not appear in the shorter version, this does not affect Saito's hypothesis that the shorter version was written before the composition of The Compendium of Training.
Another question relevant to the origins of The Compendium of Training concerns its relationship to the verse summary entitled Śikṣasamuccayakārikā, or The Compendium of Training in Verses. This text of 27 verses is preserved as a separate text in the canons, but it is also embedded in the longer work of The Compendium of Training. There is a tendency among both traditional and modern scholars to see the short version in verse as root verses and the long anthology as a commentary, akin to many other classical Buddhist treatises of India from around this time. Richard Mohaney, for one, states:
Kārikās are usually considered the root texts (mūlas) of śāstras. Śāstras, it is said, explicate the meaning of kārikās. The ŚS [Mahoney's abbreviation for The Compendium of Training] is a śāstra, the ŚSKĀ (his abbreviation for the short one in verses) its kārikā.[10]
A root text, by definition, would mean something composed before the commentary or exposition, and as Mohaney rightly points out,[11] the relationship between The Compendium of Training in Verse and The Compendium of Training is not a clear-cut one. They do not have a typical relationship found between a root text and its commentary. Instead, it is highly likely that The Compendium of Training in Verse was written as a mnemonic summary of The Compendium of Training, although a reciprocal connection between the two in terms of elucidating the content is also clearly noticeable. Thus, it is probable that these two were also finalized through a reiterative process, not different from the one between The Compendium of Training and The Way of the Bodhisattva.
Another unresolved question regarding the origins of Śāntideva's works involves the work entitled Sūtrasamuccaya, or The Compendium of Śūtras. Much has been already said about this by many scholars. Thus, only a brief mention will be made here to help clarify the context for The Compendium of Training. Most traditional commentaries, including those by Prajñākaramati, Vibhūticandra, Vairocanarakṣita, and Kalyanadeva, and all known Tibetan commentators on Śāntideva, claim that Śāntideva wrote three works, including a shorter treatise with this title, although this is no longer available. Such a claim is made in accordance with the longer version of The Way of the Bodhisattva, chapter 5, verses 105–6.[12] These verses, as per the translation of the Padmakara Translation Group, which generally follows the traditional view, are as follows:
All that must be practiced constantly Is clearly and extensively explained Within the Digest of All Disciplines,73The Shikṣhāsamucchaya. See references to Shāntideva, appendix 1, and in the bibliography. So this is something you should read repeatedly.
Page(s) 76
Blankleder, Helena, and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans. The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra. By Śāntideva. Rev. ed. Shambhala Classics. Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006.
གང་ཕྱིར་རྟག་ཏུ་སྤྱད་པ་ནི། །
དེ་ལས་རྒྱ་ཆེར་རབ་སྟོན་པས། །
བསླབ་པ་ཀུན་ལས་[p.46]Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (1990)
Slob dpon zhi ba lha and Mkhan po kun dpal. Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa rtsa ba dang 'grel pa. Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1990. 
gang phyir rtag tu spyad pa ni/_/
de las rgya cher rab ston pas/_/
bslab pa kun las [p.46]Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (1990)
Slob dpon zhi ba lha and Mkhan po kun dpal. Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa rtsa ba dang 'grel pa. Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1990.
From time to time, for sake of brevity, Consult the Digest of the Sūtras.74According to Kunzang Pelden, Shikṣhāsamucchaya and Sūtrasamucchaya are the names of two treatises composed by Shāntideva and two treatises composed by Nāgārjuna. Whereas Shāntidevaʼs Shikshāsamucchaya still exists, his Sūtrasamucchaya has been lost. By contrast, the existence of Nagarjunaʼs Sūtmsamucchaya is attested to in the Madhyamakashāstra-stuti attributed to Chandrakīrti (see Ruegg, p. 8.), whereas the Shikṣhāsamucchaya, attributed to him here, seems to be unknown in other sources. And those two works peruse with diligence That noble Nāgārjuna has composed.
Page(s) 76
Blankleder, Helena, and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans. The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra. By Śāntideva. Rev. ed. Shambhala Classics. Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006.
ཡང་ན་རེ་ཞིག་མདོར་བསྡུས་པའི། །
མདོ་རྣམས་ཀུན་ལས་བཏུས་པར་བལྟ། ། འཕགས་པ་ཀླུ་སྒྲུབ་ཀྱིས་མཛད་པའི། །
གཉིས་པོའང་འབད་པས་བལྟ་བར་བྱ། །yang na re zhig mdor bsdus pa'i/_/
mdo rnams kun las btus par blta/_/ 'phags pa klu sgrub kyis mdzad pa'i/_/
gnyis po'ang 'bad pas blta bar bya/_/Perhaps influenced by this, the Tibetan biographers of Śāntideva claim that Śāntideva authored a shorter work entitled The Compendium of Sūtras, but the work is generally absent in the records of transmission of Śāntideva's writings. Because this text is not available, and because the earlier, shorter version of The Way of the Bodhisattva does not mention it, and also because of the ambiguity in the Sanskrit text of the second verse given above, modern scholars such as Saito and Harrison have taken a view different from the traditional scholars. They consider the above verses to be later additions and also do not read the second verse in Sanskrit the same way as traditional scholars do. Instead, they consider the second verse to refer to a Sūtrasamuccaya attributed to Nāgārjuna. Below is Paul Harrison's translation of the verse, which also captures the import of translations from Sanskrit by Matics, Crosby and Skilton, and Wallace.
The Training Anthology (Śikṣā-samuccaya) should by all means Be looked at again and again Since good conduct is propounded At length in it. (5.105)
Alternatively, [for the same thing] in brief, one should just look carefully At the Sūtra Anthology (Sūtra-samuccaya), the companion work [of this type], composed by the Noble Nagarjuna. (5.106)[13]
These two translations adequately demonstrate the difference between traditional scholars and modern researchers in attributing a third work to Śāntideva. Besides this difference, what is important to note for our purpose here is that due to the absence of the above verses in the short version of The Way of the Bodhisattva and their presence in the longer version, modern textual scholars argue that the short version was written before and the longer version after The Compendium of Training was written. Thus, they consider the major bulk of The Way of Bodhisattva to have been created before The Compendium of Training. Atiśa's Commentary on the Difficult Points of the Path to Enlightenment (Bodhimārgapradīpapañjikā), which profusely cites Śāntideva, also quotes the shorter version above.
Returning to the attribution of a third work called The Compendium of Sūtras to Śāntideva, Vaidya suggests that this text probably refers to an anthology of sūtra citations in The Compendium of Training, while the 27 verse composition is the actual Compendium of Training. Yet, this is doubtful, as it is difficult to reconcile the rather large size of the anthology and Śāntideva's exhortation to read The Compendium of Sūtras if one wants to study in brief. On the contrary, it is more plausible that The Compendium of Sūtras, which is supposed to be short, refers to the summary in 27 verses. The matter begs for more research, as the earliest list of Buddhist works translated into Tibetan, The Denkarma Catalog, also has two titles, a Mdo kun las btus pa of 1500 verses, which would be one attributed to Nāgārjuna, and another Mdo sde sna tshogs kyi mdo btus pa of 2100 verses, which is curiously absent in The Pangtangma Catalog and is not found in the Tengyur canon today. Could there have been a Sūtrasamuccaya authored by Śāntideva as consistently claimed by traditional and some modern scholars and lost in the course of time? As Pezzali states, we cannot exclude with absolute certainty a Compendium of Sūtras by Śāntideva.[14]
Spread and Influence in India
In spite of the legend-laden and fuzzy beginnings of Śāntideva's works, it is sufficiently clear that his works gained much popularity soon after they became available. Traditional scholars even claim that there were 108 commentaries written on The Way of the Bodhisattva. We can safely assume that the use of the number 108 is a metaphorical expression for a great number, but there are currently eleven Indic commentarial writings on The Way of the Bodhisattva in the Tibetan Tengyur, including two by Atiśa that are instructions associated with The Way of the Bodhisattva. However, there are only two works on The Compendium of Training, including an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśila, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, who was a teacher of Atiśa. The former is entitled Śikṣākusumamañjarī, or The Panicle of Training, and the latter Śikṣāsamuccayābhisamaya, or The Direct Realization of the Compendium of Training. Both of these texts are found in volume Khi in the Middle Way section of the Derge and Choney Tengyur collections and in volume Ki of the Narthang and Peking Tengyur collections.
Interestingly, there are also two short extracts of The Compendium of Training attributed to Śāntideva himself. The first is the summary of the text in 27 verses, presented separately as a book but also embedded in the longer text of The Compendium of Training. The second is an excerpt from the sixth chapter of The Compendium of Training containing the mantra spell for spiritual purification in order to protect the body. However, this text adds the instructions for reciting the mantra and contains praises for its effectiveness in protecting the reciter from harm doers and diseases.
Gauging from the literature and the transmission of Śāntideva's works in the centuries after he composed his works, he certainly had some influence on Buddhist thought and practice in India, at least among some sections of Mahāyāna practitioners and Mādhyamika philosophers. As early as the eighth century, we see Śāntarakṣita, the famous Bengali abbot who introduced Buddhist monasticism in Tibet, cite Śāntideva's Way of the Bodhisattva in his Tattvasiddhi, or Establishment of True Reality. The works of Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla on Mahāyāna meditation was also influenced by Śāntideva.
However, a major figure to take up Śāntideva's legacy was Prajñākaramati, the leading Indian Buddhist scholar of the late tenth century. Among other things, he wrote arguably the most elaborate Indian commentary on The Way of the Bodhisattva, in which he cites The Compendium of Training many times, although he did not write a commentary on the latter. Around the same time, Śāntideva's works, particularly with a focus on their practical application, were propagated by the famous master Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa. Known for his teachings on lojong, or mind training, Dharmakīrti wrote one of the only two Indian works directly associated with The Compendium of Training. His two-page-long Direct Realization of the Compendium of Training is a cryptic outline and analysis of Śāntideva's work. This work and The Panicle of Training by his contemporary Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla are the only two works on Śāntideva's Compendium of Training available to us in Tibetan translation.
We do not have accounts of the transmission of Śāntideva's teachings through Prajñākaramati and Vairocanarakṣita. However, we have accounts of the transmission of teachings via Dharmakīrti, albeit written long after him. According to this account, the teachings were passed down from Śāntideva to two monks from Nalanda who went to consult him,[15] and they passed the transmission to Avadhūtipa. Avadhūtipa passed the transmission to Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa. Two students of his, Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna and Kamalarakṣita, who requested him to compose his two summaries of The Way of the Bodhisattva and one summary of The Direct Realization of The Compendium of Training, received the teachings from him, and Atiśa later passed it down to his students in Tibet.
Translations and Spread Beyond India
While we only have limited information presented above on the use and influence of The Compendium of Training in India after its composition, we know for sure that it caught the attention of the Indian scholars and Tibetan translators who were engaged in the massive project of translating Buddhist writings from Sanskrit to Tibetan in the beginning of the ninth century. The translation project which was launched at Samye, the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet, under the patronage of King Tri Songdetsen, continued during the reigns of his sons and grandson, and produced the majority of the Tibetan Buddhist scriptures which are today found in the Kangyur and Tengyur canonical corpuses. It was, by any standard, a monumental literary enterprise, which resulted in the astounding scriptural heritage of Tibetan Buddhism. The Compendium of Training was translated during this undertaking in the ninth century by Yeshe De, one of the most prominent monk translators of that era, with the help of two leading Indian scholars, Jinamitra and Dānaśila. The summarized Compendium of Training in Verse, which is affixed before the main text in the current Tengyur canon, was most likely translated at the same time by the same translators, although there is no explicit mention of them. As for The Compendium of Training itself, in addition to confirmation in the translator's colophon, it also appears in the catalogs of books translated into Tibetan—namely, The Denkarma Catalog and The Pantangma Catalog, produced in the ninth century.
According to the translator's colophon in the existing versions, the translation from the ninth century was further improved by Ngok Loden Sherab, the illustrious translator of the "later diffusion" of the Dharma in Tibet (ཕྱི་དར་), with the help of the Kashmiri master Tilakakalaśa in the eleventh century. Unlike the case of The Way of the Bodhisattva, for which the colophons mention the version of the source text, there is no mention of their use of a different version of The Compendium of Training to improve the translation. As we do not have the earlier translations, we also cannot tell what difference existed between the two versions. However, it is clear that up until the thirteenth century both the old and new translations appear to have been passed down, as will be shown later.
About a few decades before this revision by Ngok Loden Sherab, The Compendium of Training was also translated from Sanskrit into Chinese. Interestingly, the Chinese version, which has the title Da ch'eng chi pu sa xue lung (大乗集菩薩学論), or Mahāyānasaṃgītibodhisattvavidyāśāstra, is attributed to one Bodhisattva Dharmayaśa/Dharmakīrti, perhaps referring to Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa because of the important role he played in its transmission. Pezzali states that the Chinese translation was carried out in Pienleang in the first half of the eleventh century by Dharmarakṣa (Fă hóu) of Sóung, perhaps assisted by Jĕu ch'eng, who were both considered to be Indian.[16]
Despite going with a different title, Bendall and Wogihara (Wogihara helped Bendall with the Chinese version) found out that the Da ch'eng chi pu sa xue lung was actually the same text as The Compendium of Training and found the Chinese version to be closely aligned to the Sanskrit Tibetan text in having abbreviated parts which are found in full citations in the Tibetan version. The last part of the eighteenth chapter of the Chinese version was found to correspond to the text in the nineteenth chapter in the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts. The Chinese text can be found in Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō (大正新脩大藏經), No. 1636, which is available online at The SAT Daizōkyō Text Database.
Apart from having been translated, The Compendium of Training as well as The Way of the Bodhisattva appear to have received little attention in the Chinese Buddhist tradition. In fact, Śāntideva did not enjoy in China the kind of regard and influence he and his works had in Tibet. This may be partly because of the prominent role sūtras played in the Chinese tradition in general compared to the influence of the commentarial śāstra literature, which became the core curriculum for study in Tibetan Buddhism. It is also noteworthy that in the Chinese records, both of Śāntideva's main works were attributed to others: Nāgārjuna in the case of The Way of the Bodhisattva and Dharmakīrti in the case of The Compendium of Training. However, with sufficient and consistent evidence in the Indo-Tibetan sources, we can almost certainly conclude that these are wrong attributions.
In addition to its spread through translations, we can assume that The Compendium of Training also spread in its original language of composition, Sanskrit. The book may have reached places such as Kashmir and Nepal, where Mahāyāna thrived by the beginning of the second millennium. The Sanskrit manuscript, from which The Compendium of Training first became available to us, was acquired from Kathmandu by Daniel Wright in 1875. According to metadata provided on the Cambridge University Library website, the manuscript is estimated to be from the fourteenth–fifteenth century, written in Bengali script, with black ink on yellowish cream-colored paper, and has 166 folios of 34cm x 5cm in size.
Bendall also provides useful codicological and paleographical information about the manuscript, which, he states, was written by two scribes. The book is in pothi format. Bendall reports that the first colophon says the book was given as "a pious gift" by the Jagaddala scholar Vibhūticandra, which would then place the manuscript in the thirteenth century, as Vibhūticandra, a learned master in his own right, accompanied Śākyaśrībhadra, who arrived in Tibet in 1204.[17] It is quite likely that Vibhūticandra gifted the manuscript when he traveled through Kathmandu. The second colophon provides some information on the provenance, particularly it being owned by Nirmuni, who lived in Yampivihāra in Lalitpur. The Sanskrit manuscript is currently stored in the Cambridge University Library with the shelf number Ms Add. 1478 and can also be accessed online at https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-01478/1.
Transmission in Tibet
While we know The Compendium of Training and the other main work of Śāntideva, The Way of the Bodhisattva, were translated by the first quarter of the ninth century in Tibet, we have no information about their use and popularity during the "early diffusion" (སྔ་དར་) period and the subsequent decades. However, with the beginning of the later diffusion period in the final decades of the tenth century, we can see a new development of interest in the works of Śāntideva. The first great translator of the later diffusion, Rinchen Zangpo, and his colleague Śākya Lodrö, with the help of the Indian abbot Dharmaśrībhadra, revised the translation of The Way of the Bodhisattva based on a manuscript from Madhyadeśa. Then, with the arrival of Atiśa Dipaṃkaraśrījñāna in Tibet in 1042, we can see a surge in the popularity of Śāntideva's writings, including The Compendium of Training, not the least because they informed the lojong and lamrim practices Atiśa championed in Tibet.
Atiśa spread the instructions associated with Śāntideva's writings, which he received from his teacher Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa. With the help of his student and Tibetan translator Naktso Tsultrim Gyelwa, he translated The Direct Realization of the Compendium of Training and two other works associated with The Way of the Bodhisattva by Dharmakīrti. They must have also translated Atiśa's own work on The Way of the Bodhisattva, although it is not mentioned clearly in the colophon.
In addition to the translations, we can also see how Atiśa's own work, Bodhipāthapradīpa, or The Lamp of the Path to Enlightenment, which he composed in Tibet at the request of his chief patron and royal monk, Jangchub Wo, was influenced by Śāntideva's works. In his autocommentary on the Bodhipāthapradīpa, he cites Śāntideva's two main works throughout the text. Due to the importance Atiśa placed on Śāntideva's works, the Kadam tradition that arose from him and his main disciples, particularly Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, came to consider the writings of Śāntideva as crucial texts of the tradition. When Dromtön's disciple Potowa Rinchen Sel promoted the scriptural tradition of the Kadam and the Kadam Zhungpa approach of transmitting Atiśa and Dromtönpa's spiritual legacy through the study of six scriptures of Kadam (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་), The Compendium of Training and The Way of the Bodhisattva were included as two of the six core texts of the tradition.[18] The other four included Asaṅga's Bodhisattva Stages, Maitreya's Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras, and Śura's Garland of Birth Stories and The Collection of Aphorisms. Among the general texts the Kadam tradition used for study and practice, the two works of Śāntideva came to be seen as treatises which presented both view and conduct in a synergy (ལྟ་སྤྱོད་ཟུང་འབྲེལ་བསྟན་པ་). In this manner, The Compendium of Training, like The Way of the Bodhisattva, was regularly studied at the new scholastic center of Sangphu Neutok, established by Atiśa's student Ngok Lekpai Sherab, and was also studied zealously by the Kadampa masters who took up solitary practices.
The transmission of Śāntideva's writings was not limited to Atiśa and his direct disciples. A generation or so after Atiśa, Ngok Loden Sherab, the star translator of the later diffusion period, undertook a revision of the translation of The Compendium of Training with the help of Tilakakalaśa and yet another revision of the translation of The Way of the Bodhisattva with the help of Sumatikīrti. In fact, Jamling Sonam Namgyal reports that Ngok Loden Sherab carried out his first translation with help of the Kashmiri scholar Tilakakalaśa at Srinda Temple and again produced a better translation at Lhasa, having consulted the earlier translation from the early diffusion period. While carrying out such translation and promoting the teachings, Ngok Loden Sherab received the transmission of Śāntideva's works through lineages other than the one passed down via Atiśa. In most records of the transmission of Śāntideva's works, we find a lineage from Śāntideva through Jetāri, Junior Candrakīrti, Gunaśrī, Kanakaśrī, and Sumatikīrti to Ngok Loden Sherab, from whom the teachings spread via the Sangphu and other scholarly connections. Some accounts also include Vinitadeva, Puṇyaśrī, Kṛṣṇapāda, and Jñānaśrī among the Indian masters.
The transmissions, which came down from Ngok Loden Sherab mainly for the exposition of Śāntideva's works and from other Kadam masters mainly for their practical application, were subsequently passed down through numerous lineages, including those within all major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition, we also see the translation of Vairocanarakṣita's Pinacle of Training, a work associated with The Compendium of Training, by Zhama Sengyal and Locha Zhönu Bar, with the help of Sumatikīrti and at the behest of King Tashi Namkha Wangchuk. Marpa Chöki Wangchuk later revised the translation of this work. Another important figure who furthered the teachings of Śāntideva in Tibet was Vibhūticandra, an erudite scholar who accompanied the Kashmiri master Śākyaśrībhadra to Tibet in the beginning of the thirteenth century. Not only did he spread the longer account of Śāntideva's life story comprising seven marvelous acts, he wrote an extensive commentary on The Way of Bodhisattva and translated it into Tibetan by himself. However, there are no accounts of any work or teachings by him on The Compendium of Training.
In addition to the teachings and transmissions in the Tibetan language, physical copies of manuscripts of The Compendium of Training in Sanskrit may have also reached Tibet just like in the case of the manuscript in Kathmandu, which is said to have been gifted by the scholar Vibhūticandra. The very last folio of a manuscript of The Compendium of Training containing two lines in Magadhi script was discovered by Rāhula Saṅskrityāyana in the twentieth century at Sakya Monastery in Tibet. The colophon dates the manuscript to the third regnal year of a king named Kumārapāla, who, Mrozik speculates, may be the one who ruled in Gujarat in the second half of the twelfth century or the king by the same name who ruled very briefly at the end of the Pāla dynasty in the middle of the twelfth century in Bengal.[19]
Among Tibetan scholars, the first one to comment on The Compendium of Training is perhaps the Kadampa master Tsangnakpa Tsondru Senge, who also wrote a commentary on The Way of the Bodhisattva. Tsangnakpa, who taught at Sangphu, wrote a commentary on The Compendium of Training in Verse based on instructions for practical application. His commentary was put together with additional notes by his student Koncho Sumgi Bang. The book has become available through the Kadam Sungbum series in recent years. Another early commentary made available through the same series is the one by Zhonu Rinchen, who most likely lived at the end of the thirteenth century and the beginning of the fourteenth century. Known as the second Dharmakīrti for his command of logic and epistemology, he was the nineteenth throne holder of the Lingtoe College of Sangphu from 1315–1327. Zhonu Rinchen was a student of a master named Wangchuk Rinchen, but he claims that his commentary is based on the teachings of Chökyi Yeshe and Tsondru Senge, the latter most likely to be identified with Tsangnakpa Tsondru Senge.
Another Kadampa master who also wrote both an outline and a commentary on The Compendium of Training is Jangchub Kyab, but we have no information on him except that his commentary was also found in the library of Drepung Monastery with the writings of other Kadam masters. He presents The Compendium of Training in the scheme of three sections and claims it is based on the words of his teacher, a lord of exposition, but he does not give a proper name to help us identify the teacher. In spite of sparse information on the transmission of The Compendium of Training compared to The Way of the Bodhisattva, we know for sure that the teachings continued through the Kadam lineages and also among other schools of Tibetan Buddhism. This can be inferred from the biographical accounts and records of teachings of the Narthang masters. Chim Namkha Drak, the seventh abbot of Narthang who lived in the beginning of the thirteenth century, for instance, received The Compendium of Training two times from Paldenpa, the fourth abbot of Narthang, two and a half times from Zhang Chökyi Lama, the fifth abbot, once from Jangchenpa, alias Sangay Gompa, the sixth abbot, and also received teachings related to The Compendium of Training from Nyen Sherab Pel.[20] Chim also composed a commentary on The Compendium of Training, although this work, like most others among his prodigious output, is no longer available to us.[21]
Just like Chim Namkha Drak, his star student and the eighth abbot of Narthang, Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, received teachings on The Compendium of Training and associated writings many times from his teachers.[22] In the records of teachings he received, he mentions a commentary on The Compendium of Training by one Sindhartha,[23] and both the records available for Chim and Kyotön mention the transmission of new and old versions/translations of The Compendium of Training, either referring to the translations made in the early and later diffusion periods or to the two versions of translations carried out by Ngok Loden Sherab. Today, we do not have these distinct versions of the translations, but it is possible that a careful study of the early commentaries could reveal two versions used in the past.
Fortunately, the recent discovery of texts from Drepung Library has helped us gain a better picture of the transmission of The Compendium of Training in the early days of the formation of the Tibetan Buddhist schools and their associated curriculums of study and practice. Short texts in Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim's collection of writings such as The Oral Discourse and The Wheel-like Instructions for Meditation on The Way of the Bodhisattva give us names of successive masters through whom the teachings have been passed down until their times in Tibet.[24] Based on these and the mention of Śāntideva's writings in the accounts of texts studied by numerous other masters, it can be inferred that both the exegesis and meditation teachings of Śāntideva continued among almost all schools of Tibetan Buddhism through what Seyfort Ruegg called the classical period of Tibetan scholastic history. For example, we see that Tsongkhapa gave an exposition of The Compendium of Training in Reting while one of his main disciples, Jamyang Choje, made notes. Around this time, Jamling Sonam Namgyal wrote commentaries on both The Compendium of Training and the verse summary of it.
The legacy of Śāntideva saw an unparalleled champion in the nineteenth century in the figure of Patrul Ogyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo, the famous rimé master who was considered to be a reincarnation of Śāntideva. Patrul took Śāntideva's writings to a new height of interpretation and influence in Tibet. He wrote a commentary on The Compendium of Training in Verses and an outline and meditative instructions for The Way of the Bodhisattva, but several commentaries on The Way of the Bodhisattva by his direct disciples record and pass on the details of his understanding and practical application of Śāntideva's teachings. A couple generations after Patrul Rinpoche, Khenpo Zhenga compiled his commentaries on the thirteen great treatises of India, which included The Way of the Bodhisattva. These thirteen treatises came to form the main curriculum of the new shedra scholastic culture that arose in the nineteenth century and became popular among most schools of Tibetan Buddhism in the twentieth century. Today, The Way of the Bodhisattva is studied as a part of a core curriculum of the shedra monastic colleges in all schools of Tibetan Buddhism except the Geluk, but The Compendium of Training has received far less attention. While The Way of the Bodhisattva continues to flourish with unrelenting vigor through advocates such as the Dalai Lama outside Tibet, and teachings on it continue unimpeded within Tibet, The Compendium of Training remains a text taught occasionally and read by a fewer number of people, although much of its content is generally covered in the study of the commentaries on The Way of the Bodhisattva.
Transmission and Study Beyond Tibet
The earliest interest in The Compendium of Training among modern scholars seems to have started with the acquisition of the Sanskrit manuscript of the text from Kathmandu by Daniel Wright in 1875, currently held in the Cambridge University Library. Cecil Bendall, who was a professor of Sanskrit at University College London then, studied and edited the text and published it through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902. His book, entitled Çikshāsamuccaya, a Compendium of Buddhist Teaching, included a critically edited Sanskrit version of the text in Devanagari script, which also used the Tibetan and Chinese versions for comparison and reference. It also included a full translation of The Compendium of Training in Verses, a summary of The Compendium of Training in English, and an introduction broaching the context, author, content, linguistic style, poetic meters, and translation of the text. Another manuscript of the text was also preserved in the India Office, but Bendall concluded that this was only a copy of the manuscript held at Cambridge University Library.
Carrying on his work over many years, Cecil Bendall translated the text of The Compendium of Training while he served as professor of Sanskrit at Cambridge University. However, he did not finish the translation, and W. H. D. Rouse, who worked with Bendall and was tasked to finish it, completed the translation and published it in 1922. As regards the translation of The Compendium of Training into other European languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930.[25] Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered The Compendium of Training into modern Japanese from the Chinese version.[26]
In India, using Bendall's edited version, P. L. Vaidya published The Compendium of Training again in Devanagari in 1961 with a short introduction.[27] This is perhaps the first reproduction of The Compendium of Training in an Indian script after the original teachings and manuscripts disappeared from India after about the thirteenth century. This version was later used by the Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon to produce a digital Sanskrit text in roman transliteration,[28] thus making the text more accessible to Western readers. The same edition was also reproduced in roman transliteration by Mirek Rozehnahl for Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages (GRETIL).[29]
A significant contribution to the study of Śāntideva and his writings was the publication of Amalia Pezzali's book Śāntideva, mystique bouddhiste des VIIe et VIIIe siècles in French. In this book, she carried out a detailed study of Śāntideva's life, philosophy, and writings, including The Compendium Training. She built on Bendall's work in discussing the textual, historical, codicological, and philosophical aspects of The Compendium of Training.
Toward the end of the twentieth century, The Compendium of Training attracted the attention of more academics and religious teachers. Akira Saito discussed the origins of The Compendium of Training vis-à-vis that of The Way of the Bodhisattva, arguing, as presented above, that The Compendium of Training was written after the short version and before the long version of The Way of the Bodhisattva, with over two centuries of gap between the two. Paul Harrison, who carried out a more in-depth study of the text and content of The Compendium of Training, generally agreed with Saito's suggestion on the origin of The Compendium of Training but newly argued that far more verses in the text are Śāntideva's original composition than were earlier thought to be. He enumerated some 160 verses to be original compositions by Śāntideva and published a fresh translation of the verses. He also undertook a close examination of the Tibetan translation of the last chapter of The Compendium of Training to investigate whether the translators translated the sūtra citations themselves or if they picked up the citations from the sūtras which were translated. His investigation resulted in a mixed bag.
Another important milestone in the transmission of The Compendium of Training in our times is the complete new translation of the text into English by Charles Goodman, which he published as The Training Anthology of Śāntideva in 2016. Similarly, Barbara Clayton carried out a critical study of the moral theory as presented in Śāntideva's Compendium of Training in order to place it in the wider context of Mahāyāna and Buddhist ethics and moral theory in general. In the same vein of thought, Susanne Mrozik studied The Compendium of Training as literature to highlight the central role of the body in Buddhist ethics in contrast to the well-known focus on the heartmind in Buddhist practice, and she discusses what she calls the positive "physiomoral discourse" of the body as an important part of ethical development in contrast to the negative "ascetic discourse" of the body as a foul and putrid entity without intrinsic worth.[30] Richard Mahoney, who argues that The Compendium of Training was written to counter bewilderment which results from reading the Mahāyāna sūtras, wrote a Master's thesis on the topic of the bodhisattva path in Śāntideva's Compendium of Training under the supervision of Paul Harrison.
These academic studies and publications related to The Compendium of Training complement the teachings and publications of The Compendium of Training in the traditional religious centers among Tibetan and Himalayan communities. In addition to The Compendium of Training being made available through the various editions of the Tengyur canonical collection, many initiatives for the documentation and production of digital texts such as the Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC)[31] and Adarsha[32] have also made digital editions of The Compendium of Training easily available online. Although The Compendium of Training is far from gaining traction even remotely similar to Śāntideva's other work, The Way of the Bodhisattva, there are teachings given on The Compendium of Training by no less a figure than H.H. The 14th Dalai Lama[33] and other masters in the diaspora and by teachers such as Khenpo Tshultrim Lodoe and others within Tibet.
Today, The Compendium of Training continues to be valued as a condensed treatise on bodhisattva precepts and practices. It is considered to be an anthology of crucial sūtra passages on Mahāyāna discipline that presents teachings on bodhisattva ethics and practices, which are otherwise spread across an enormous corpus of Mahāyāna sūtras, in a compendium of convenient size and structure. Moreover, The Compendium of Training also preserves passages from original Sanskrit texts that are no longer available, and for the sūtras which are extant, it preserves alternative or better readings. As such, The Compendium of Training holds great value for both scholarly study and Mahāyāna Buddhist practice.
Notes
- ↑ Akira Saito, "An Inquiry into the Relationship between the Śikṣāsamuccaya and the Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra," Studies in Indian Philosophy and Buddhism 17 (2010): 22.
- ↑ See Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1990), 147.
- ↑ Dpal brtsegs bod yig dpe rnying zhib 'jug khang, ’Spyod ’jug gi bsdus don dang slob zhi ba lha’i lo rgyus,” bKa’ gdams gsung ‘bum phyogs bsgrigs theng gsum pa, (Khreng tu'u: si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), vol. 6, imgs 9-14. BDRC. W1PD153536-v6_img9-14.
- ↑ Saito, "Inquiry," 22.
- ↑ Paul Harrison, "Verses by Śāntideva in the Śikṣāsamuccaya: A New English Translation," Bulletin of the Asia Institute 23 (2009): 87.
- ↑ Paul Harrison, "The Case of the Vanishing Poet: New Light on Śāntideva and the Śikṣā-samuccaya," in Indica et Tibetica: Festschrift für Michael Hahn, Zum 65, Geburtstag von Freunden und Schülern überreicht, ed. Konrad Klaus and Jens-Uwe Hartmann (Vienna: Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universität Wien, 2007), 227.
- ↑ Butön Rinchen Drub, Bu ston chos 'byung (Peking: Krung go bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1988), 234-5.
- ↑ Harrison, "Verses by Śāntideva," 87.
- ↑ Fourteenth Dalai Lama, "Spyod 'jug chen mo'i bka' khrid/ (nyin dang po'i phyi dro/) [Teaching on the Great Bodhicaryāvatāra, Day 1, Afternoon]," produced by The Office of the Dalai Lama (Varanasi, 2013), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IbyRO3yTzAc.
- ↑ Richard Mahoney, Of the Progresse of the Bodhisattva: The Bodhisattvamārga in the Śikṣāsamuccaya (Oxford, New Zealand: Indica et Buddhica, 2016), 14.
- ↑ Mahoney, Of the Progresse, 15.
- ↑ For Prajñākaramati, see Bodhicaryāvatārapañjikā (Byang chub kyi spyod pa la 'jug pa'i dka' 'grel), in Derge Tengyur D3872, dbu ma, vol. 105, 109b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3872. For Vibhūticandra, see Bodhicaryāvatāratātparyapañjikāviśeṣadyotanī-nāma (Byang chub kyi spyod pa la 'jug pa'i dgongs pa'i 'grel pa khyad par gsal byed), in Derge Tengyur D3880, dbu ma, vol. 106, 229b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3880. For Vairocanarakṣita, see Bodhisattvacaryāvatārapañjikā (Byang chub sems dpa' spyod pa la 'jug pa'i dka' 'grel), in Derge Tengyur D3875a, dbu ma, vol. 106, 115b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3875A. And for Kalyāṇadeva, see Bodhisattvacaryāvatārasaṃskāra (Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i legs par sbyar ba), in Derge Tengyur D3874, dbu ma, vol. 106, 39b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3874.
- ↑ Paul Harrison, "Śāntideva: The Author and His Project," in Readings of Śāntideva's Guide to Bodhisattva Practice, ed. Jonathan C. Gold and Douglas S. Duckworth (New York: Columbia University Press, 2019), 31.
- ↑ Amalia Pezzali, Śāntideva: Mystique Bouddhiste des VIIe et VIIIe siècles (Florence: Vallecchi Editore, 1968), 84.
- ↑ See Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim's Damnga Khatam, or Oral Instructions (Gdams ngag kha gtam lo rgyus) in Karma Phuntsho, ed., སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་ཀྱི་མཛད་རྣམ་དང་གསུང་རྩོམ། The Life and Works of Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (Bhutan: Loden Foundation, 2023), 681–85, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/images/1/15/Phuntsho-2023-The_Life_and_Works_of_Kyoton_Monlam_Tsultrim_REDUCED.pdf. Tāranatha has three scholars. See Tāranātha, Rgya gar chos 'byung (Khreng tu'u: si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), 204.
- ↑ Pezzali, Śāntideva: Mystique Bouddhiste, 77.
- ↑ Cecil Bendall, xxiv.
- ↑ See Thupten Jinpa, ed. and trans., The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts, attributed to Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 9.
- ↑ Susanne Mrozik, Virtuous Bodies: The Physical Dimensions of Morality in Buddhist Ethics (New York, Oxford University Press, 2007), 14, https://archive.org/details/virtuousbodiesthephysicaldimensionsofmoralityinbuddhistethicssusannemrozikoup_349_b/page/13/mode/2up.
- ↑ Phuntsho, Life and Works of Kyotön, 190-91, 195, 199.
- ↑ Phuntsho, 229.
- ↑ Phuntsho, 133-35, 146, 157.
- ↑ Phuntsho, 159.
- ↑ Phuntsho, 682 and 715.
- ↑ Mortiz Winternitz, Der Mahayana-Buddhimus (Tübingen: Mohr Siebach, 1930).
- ↑ Gisho Nakano, trans., Daijyōshubosatsugakuron (Tokyo: Daitōshuppanshya, 1935).
- ↑ P. L. Vaidya, ed., Śikṣāsamuccaya of Śāntideva (Darbhanga, Bihar, India: Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning, 1961), https://archive.org/details/siksasamuccayaofsantidevashikshavaidyap.l.mithilainstitutedarbhanga_400_c/page/n3/mode/2up.
- ↑ See this text on the Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon website: https://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/book/269.
- ↑ See the text on the GRETIL website: https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_zAntideva-zikSAsamuccaya.htm.
- ↑ Mrozik, Virtuous Bodies, 61–111.
- ↑ The Buddhist Digital Resource Center is the largest online archive of Tibetan and Buddhist texts in the world and provides open access to this literature via an online library, a mobile app, and hard drive distribution programs. See BDRC at https://www.bdrc.io/.
- ↑ Adarsha has digitized multiple versions of the Kangyur and Tengyur and a number of collected works (gsung 'bum) of Tibetan masters from all Tibetan Buddhist schools. See Adarsha's website at https://adarshah.org/.
- ↑ For recordings of teachings by the 14th Dalai Lama on The Compendium of Training, see https://www.serajeyrigzodchenmo.org/dl-audio-zhung-chen/zhung-zhan/item/451-h-adzz203039 and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZkszWxalx5c.
