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Explore/The Bodhisattva's Goal

2026-10-08T01:55:52Z

KPhuntsho:

{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|subclass=Key Concepts
|theme=The Path of the Bodhisattva
|sub-theme=The Bodhisattva Path
|featured-books=The Way of the Bodhisattva (2006); Arya Nagarjuna's Praise to Satisfying Sentient Beings (and) A Commentary on the Awakening Mind (14th Dalai Lama 2015); Gateway to Knowledge: The Treatise Entitled The Gate for Entering the Way of a Pandita, Vol. 3
|featured-texts=Bodhicaryāvatāra; Sattvārādhanastava; Madhyamakāvatāra; Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra; Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra; Rājaparikathāratnavāli; Mkhas pa'i tshul la 'jug pa'i sgo
|jumbo-image=File:Everest-louis-the goal-squooshed-unsplash (1).jpg
|jumbo-text=The bodhisattva's primary aim is benefiting all sentient beings through compassion and wisdom, ultimately establishing them in perfect enlightenment. Explore the nature of buddhahood—the enlightened bodies, wisdoms, qualities, and spontaneous activities that enable a buddha to fulfill both one's own welfare and that of all beings.
|main-text====Benefitting Sentient Beings===

The primary objective of the bodhisattva path is explicit in the definition of bodhicitta, the defining characteristic of a bodhisattva. Bodhicitta is composed of two components: compassion and wisdom. Through compassion, the bodhisattva feels the suffering of sentient beings and earnestly seeks to eliminate it. Through wisdom, the bodhisattva pursues the most enduring solution—a permanent state of peace and genuine happiness, free from suffering. Buddhahood, the state of perfect enlightenment, is thought to be such a state of genuine and lasting happiness. The bodhisattva works to benefit all sentient beings in every way possible while ultimately aiming to establish them in the state of perfect enlightenment.
The main goal of the bodhisattva endeavor, therefore, is the welfare of all sentient beings. Śāntideva makes this explicit in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.

{{PullBcaVerses|5.101}}

We find the same spirit expressed in Nāgārjuna's ''Praise of Pleasing Sentient Beings'', which Atiśa and Tsultrim Gyalwa translated into Tibetan. In it, the Buddha is quoted as saying:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I have achieved this spiritual attainment because I have benefitted sentient beings. I hold this body solely for the sake of sentient beings.<ref>ང་ཉིད་སེམས་ཅན་ཕན་འདོགས་གྱུར་པས་གྲུབ་འདི་བརྙེས་པ་སྟེ། །སེམས་ཅན་ཁོ་ནའི་དོན་དུ་ང་ཡིས་སྐུ་འདི་ཡང་དག་བཟུང་། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Sattvāradhānastava'' (''Sems can mgu bar bya ba'i bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1125, Bstod tshogs, ka, vol. 1:74b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1125.</ref>
}}
Atiśa illustrates compassionate bodhisattva action with the examples of Nāgārjuna giving his head away, Āryadeva his eyes, and Aśvaghoṣa and Jetāri their limbs to tigers. The Jātaka stories also revolve around a bodhisattva's efforts to benefit sentient beings through various practices.

Numerous statements, stories, and arguments in the sūtras and commentarial treatises underscore that the main objective of bodhisattva practice is to benefit sentient beings. Maitreya and Śāntideva mention that buddhas and bodhisattvas would even happily dive into the deepest hell realm of Unrelenting Pain for the sake of sentient beings.<ref>See ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkara'', 5.26. See also ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', [[Texts/Bodhicaryāvatāra/Verses/6.120|6.120]] and [[Texts/Bodhicaryāvatāra/Verses/8.107|8.107]].</ref>

With this primary motive—to benefit sentient beings, place them in the state of everlasting happiness, and permanently free them from suffering—bodhisattvas earnestly seek the means to accomplish these goals. While there are many ways to benefit sentient beings, not all of them can lead to a permanent state of happiness and the complete eradication of suffering and its causes. As perfect enlightenment is seen as the only reliable and effective way to help sentient beings enjoy everlasting happiness and permanently uproot suffering and its causes, a bodhisattva aims to establish all sentient beings in that very state. Moreover, enlightenment is the most powerful state from which to provide effective, impartial help to all beings. Thus, a bodhisattva seeks buddhahood as the ultimate goal that accomplishes the welfare of both self and others.

Depending on their caliber and courage, a bodhisattva aims to take all sentient beings to buddhahood before oneself, at the same time as oneself, or after oneself. The first type, considered to be of superior caliber, is said to take three countless eons to reach buddhahood, while the second, or middling type, is said to take seven countless eons. The last, or inferior type, takes thirty-three countless eons. Many bodhisattvas of the highest caliber, who have reached the last stage of the path, are said to voluntarily delay their own buddhahood in hopes of leading other sentient beings to enlightenment first.

Irrespective of their calibre, speed, or duration, a bodhisattva goes through the four paths of learning: the path of accumulation, the path of application, the path of seeing, and the path of practice. Having progressed through the ten stages and attained the various qualities, a bodhisattva in the final moments of the tenth stage, called Cloud of Dharma, enters the meditative absorption called Diamond-like Stabilization (''vajropamasamādhi'', རྡོ་རྗེ་ལྟ་བུའི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་). Through this, he or she eradicates the most subtle traces of the obscuration of the knowable (''jñeyāvaraṇam'', ཤེས་བྱའི་སྒྲིབ་པ་), which constitutes the last propensities of dualistic thoughts and conceptual constructs. All forms of ordinary mentation and cognitive processes come to an end, like fire being extinguished due to exhaustion of fuel. Candrakīrti describes this process using the fire metaphor.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=When all the dry firewood of knowables is burnt
Such peace is the ''dharmakāya'' of the buddhas.
There is neither production nor cessation.
As the mind ceases, the enlightened body is directly realized.<ref>ཤེས་བྱའི་བུད་ཤིང་སྐམ་པོ་མ་ལུས་པ། །བསྲེགས་པས་ཞི་དེ་རྒྱལ་རྣམས་ཆོས་སྐུ་སྟེ། །དེ་ཚེ་སྐྱེ་བ་མེད་ཅིང་འགག་པ་མེད། །སེམས་འགགས་པས་དེ་སྐུ་ཡིས་མངོན་སུམ་མཛད། ། Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, dbu ma, vol. 102, 'a, 216b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref>
}}
At this point, the bodhisattva finally attains the path of non-learning and the eleventh stage, called Universal Light (''samantaprabha'', ཀུན་ཏུ་འོད་), thus becoming a fully enlightened buddha. He or she reaches the final goal and destination of the bodhisattva's long journey, and the process of spiritual transformation is completed.

===Buddhahood===

Many Mahāyāna sūtras and commentarial writings discuss the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as the resultant goal of the bodhisattva path, although they differ in their theories of buddhahood. A quick overview of the nature, types, intrinsic characteristics, qualities, and activities of the fully enlightened buddha is presented below based on the theories of buddhahood in the writings of Maitreya, Nāgārjuna, Candrakīrti, Śāntideva, and the Tibetan commentaries on the writings of these Indian authors. These authors present the resultant state of buddhahood as one in which a bodhisattva fulfills the purposes of both oneself and others. The fulfillment of one's own purpose or objective is presented through the actualization of the ''dharmakāya'', or truth body (ཆོས་སྐུ་), and the fulfillment of others' purpose is presented through the projection of corporeal bodies (''rūpakāya'', གཟུགས་སྐུ་). In this way, buddhahood is often discussed in the schema of the two types of enlightenment bodies. Maitreya states in his ''Ultimate Continuum'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's own welfare and the welfare of others consist of the ultimate ''kāya''
And the seeming ''kāya'' that is based on it, respectively.<ref>This is found in chapter 3, verse 1ab: རང་དོན་གཞན་དོན་དོན་དམ་སྐུ་དང་ནི། །དེ་ལ་བརྟེན་པ་ཀུན་རྫོབ་སྐུ་ཉིད་དེ། ། Maitreya, ''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'' (''Theg pa chen po rgyud bla ma'i bstan bcos''), in Derge Tengyur D4024, sems tsam, vol. 123, phi, 65b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4024. See this verse on the [https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Texts/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nottaratantra%C5%9B%C4%81stra/Root_Verses/Verse_III.1 Tsadra Buddha-Nature site]</ref>
}}
What Maitreya calls the ultimate ''kāya'', or real enlightened body, refers to the ''dharmakāya'', or truth body, and the seeming ''kāya'', or relative enlightened body, refers to the corporeal forms which are manifested from the state of buddhahood. In the chapter on buddhahood in ''The Ultimate Continuum'', Maitreya discusses the state of perfect enlightenment through eight points: its nature, causes, results, functions, qualities, expressions, temporal eternity, and inconceivability. (1) In its nature, buddhahood is pure in being both naturally pristine and totally free from adventitious impurities. (2) In terms of causes, buddhahood is brought about by the cultivation of the wisdom discerning ultimate truth in a meditative absorption and by the compassionate engagement during post-meditative periods. Explaining the cause, Nāgārjuna in his ''Garland of Jewels'' states that out of the two forms of accumulations, the accumulation of pristine wisdom leads to the attainment of the ''dharmakāya'' and the accumulation of merit leads to the attainment of the ''rūpakāya'', or corporeal forms.<ref>སངས་རྒྱས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་གཟུགས་སྐུ་ནི། །བསོད་ནམས་ཚོགས་ལས་བྱུང་བ་སྟེ། །ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྐུ་ནི་མདོར་བསྡུ་ན། །རྒྱལ་པོ་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཚོགས་ལས་འཁྲུངས། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref>

With regard to (3) the resultant aspect of buddhahood, this state is presented as a result that is not generated but revealed—purified of adventitious defilements, obscurations, and their subtle traces. The agency of buddhahood to fulfill both one’s and others' welfare is described as (4) the function or instrumentality of buddhahood. Devoting a whole chapter on (5) the qualities of buddhahood, Maitreya classifies these qualities into the thirty-two enlightened qualities of being free from impurities (བྲལ་བའི་ཡོན་ཏན་), associated with the ''dharmakāya'', and the thirty-two enlightened qualities which are cultivated (སྨིན་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་). The former includes ten powers, four modes of being fearless, and eighteen unique qualities of the Buddha, and the latter refers to the thirty-two marks of the Buddha's body. The state of perfect enlightenment endowed with such boundless qualities is then (6) expressed or taxonomically presented through the three enlightened modes of the ''dharmakāyā'' (truth body), ''saṃbhogakāya'' (enjoyment body), and ''nirmāṇakāya'' (emanation body). These modes and qualities are not impermanent or temporally bound but are qualified by (7) the feature of being eternal and permanent as well as by being beyond ordinary conception and thought. Thus, they are (8) inconceivable and ineffable realities which only the enlightened Buddha can fully fathom and experience.

===Enlightened Bodies, Wisdom, and Activities===

In the most common presentation of buddhahood, we find it presented through the three or four enlightened bodies, four wisdoms, and the enlightened activities of the Buddha. Enlightened bodies are initially classified into ''dharmakāya'', or truth body, and ''rūpakāya'', or corporeal body. The former is further divided into ''svabhāvikakāya'' (ངོ་བོ་ཉིད་སྐུ་), or nature body, and ''jñānadharmakāya'' (ཡེ་ཤེས་ཆོས་སྐུ་), or pristine wisdom truth body. The first refers to the open and empty nature of buddhahood, which is free from all impurities. It is normally defined as the sphere of reality that is endowed with twofold purities (དག་པ་གཉིས་ལྡན་གྱི་དབྱིངས་): natural purity and purity from adventitious stains. The pristine wisdom body refers to the cognitive and conscious aspect of the Buddha's spirit. It is often referred to as the all-knowing pristine wisdom (ཐམས་ཅད་མཁྱེན་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་) of the Buddha. These two bodies—representing the empty, open aspect and the cognitive aspect of buddhahood respectively—make up the inner formless spirit of the Buddha.

The Buddha's powerful inner spirit manifests in a pure physical form within a heavenly realm perceptible only to fully enlightened buddhas and advanced bodhisattvas on the pure stages. This is the ''saṃbhogakāya'' (ལོངས་སྤྱོད་རྫོགས་སྐུ་), or enjoyment body. It is physically characterized by the thirty-two marks and eight tokens of an enlightened being and is described as being endowed with the five specificities (ངེས་པ་ལྔ་ལྡན་). The five specific features are (1) abiding in the specific pure realm of Akaniṣṭha, (2) having a specific form with the thirty-two marks, (3) being surrounded by a specific retinue of only advanced bodhisattvas, (4) giving only specific teachings on Mahāyāna, and (5) doing so in perpetuity.

From the celestial form of the enjoyment body appear countless emanations to help ordinary sentient beings, like the reflections of the moon shining in multiple water bodies according to the quality of the water. These bodies are known as ''nirmāṇakāya''s (སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་), or emanation bodies. The best of the emanation bodies, known as the supreme emanation body (''paramanirmāṇakāya'', མཆོག་གི་སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་), also bears the thirty-two marks and eighty tokens and displays the twelve phases of the Buddha's deeds in the world. The second type of emanation is the emanation body by birth (''janmanirmāṇakāya'', སྐྱེ་བ་སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་), which includes the many kinds of births buddhas take as saints, leaders, animals, etc. Emanations as artists or artisans associated with arts and crafts are known as artisan emanations (བཟོ་སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་). The numerous forms buddhas take to benefit sentient beings—such as bridges, lamps, trees, paintings, statues, etc.—are known as variegated emanations (སྣ་ཚོགས་སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་).

In the Mahāyāna theory of buddhahood, all these bodies of the Buddha, including the physical manifestations, are considered to be essentially pristine wisdom. There is no materiality and opaque substance with spatial and temporal limitations. Even what appear as physical bodies with shapes and forms are in essence illusory embodiments of pristine wisdom. Thus, the whole world of the buddhas is presented through the various types of pristine wisdom.

:(1) The mirror-like wisdom (''ādarśajñāna'', མེ་ལོང་ཡེ་ཤེས་) is the pure openness of the innate nature of the mind and the purified state of the store-consciousness one has as an ordinary sentient being.

:(2) The wisdom of equality (''samatājñānam'', མཉམ་ཉིད་ཡེ་ཤེས་) is the nature of the mind being free from prejudices, partiality, and bias. It is the purified version of the egocentric distorted mind in ordinary sentient beings.

:(3) The discriminating wisdom (''pratyavekṣaṇājñāna'', སོར་རྟོག་ཡེ་ཤེས་) is the mind's innate ability to discern and realize. It is the purified version of the mental consciousness in ordinary sentient beings.

:(4) The all-accomplishing wisdom (''kṛtyānuṣṭhānajñānam'', བྱ་སྒྲུབ་ཡེ་ཤེས་) is the positive zeal and dynamism in the true nature of the mind to do good and benefit sentient beings. It is the purified version of the sensory consciousness in ordinary sentient beings.

:(5) To this, one may also add, particularly in the Vajrayāna context, another type of wisdom called the wisdom of ''dharmadhātu'' (''dharmadhātujñāna'', ཆོས་དབྱིངས་ཡེ་ཤེས་), which is the pure luminous foundation of all things.

Buddhahood, in brief, is composed of the four types of enlightened bodies and five kinds of pristine wisdom, which lead to the enlightened activities.

Any virtuous and beneficial activities that arise from these different forms of enlightened bodies are considered the enlightened activities of the Buddha. They are said to be as extensive as space and are given the two unique characteristics of being totally spontaneous and invariably continuous. As all thoughts, concepts, sense of individuality, agency, and action dissolve in the state of perfect enlightenment, there is no intentional will to act nor any deliberate or contrived action. The enlightened actions of the buddhas occur without premeditated intention, plan, or effort. Because of the immense investment made by the Buddha as a bodhisattva while on the path to enlightenment, the activities of the Buddha naturally ensue spontaneously. Thus, examples such as the wish-fulfilling gem and wish-granting tree from Indian cultural lore are commonly used to illustrate the thought-free and effortless activities of the Buddha. Candrakīrti compares it to a potter's wheel turning long after the potter has given the wheel a push. Similarly, Śāntideva likens it to a monument that has been injected with the power of a Garuda spell in the past yet continues to help cure illnesses long after the person who created it has passed away.

===Elements of Perfect Enlightenment===

Although considered inconceivable and ineffable, many different categories, elements, and features are used to present the state of perfect enlightenment, particularly the state of ''dharmakāya''. Mipham, in his ''Entry to the Ways of the Learned'', presents buddhahood through twenty-one sets of undefiled dharmas (''zag pa med pa’i sde tshan nyer gcig'').

====Twenty-one Undefiled Dharmas====

# The thirty-seven dharmas of enlightenment (བྱང་ཆུབ་ཕྱོགས་ཀྱི་ཆོས་སོ་བདུན་)
# The four immeasurable thoughts (ཚད་མེད་བཞི་)
# The eight modes of liberation (རྣམ་པར་ཐར་པ་བརྒྱད་)
# The nine states of meditative absorption for successive abiding (མཐར་གྱིས་གནས་པའི་སྙོམས་འཇུག་དགུ་)
# The eight sense spheres of suppression (ཟིལ་གྱིས་གནོན་པའི་སྐྱེ་མཆེད་བརྒྱད་)
# The ten totalities (ཟད་པར་བཅུ་)
# Elimination of defiling emotions (ཉོན་མོངས་མེད་པ་)
# Effortless knowing (སྨོན་ནས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# The six forms of clairvoyance (མངོན་ཤེས་དྲུག་)
# The four forms of discernment (སོ་སོར་ཡང་དག་པའི་རིག་པ་བཞི་)
# The four forms of purity (དག་པ་བཞི་)
# The ten masteries (དབང་བཅུ་)
# The ten powers/strengths (སྟོབས་བཅུ་)
# The four forms of fearlessness (མི་འཇིགས་པ་བཞི་)
# The eighteen distinct traits (མ་འདྲེས་པ་བཅོ་བརྒྱད་)
# Absence of reserve (སྲུང་བ་མེད་པ་)
# The three forms of mindfulness (དྲན་པ་ཉེ་བར་བཞག་པ་གསུམ་)
# Infallibility (བསྙེལ་བ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Total eradication of habitual propensities (བག་ཆགས་ཡང་དག་པར་བཅོམ་པ་)
# Great compassion (ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཆེན་པོ་)
# Omniscience in knowing all aspects (རྣམ་པ་ཐམས་ཅད་མཁྱེན་པ་)<ref>See Erik Pema Kunsang, trans., ''Gateway to Knowledge: The Treatise Entitled The Gate for Entering the Way of a Pandita'', by Mipham Rinpoche (Bouddhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 2002), 3:229-40.</ref>

Maitreya, in ''The Ultimate Continuum'', highlights thirty-two qualities of the ''dharmakāya'' and calls them qualities of being free (བྲལ་བའི་ཡོན་ཏན་) from impurities. These include the ten powers or strengths, four forms of fearlessness, and the eighteen unique and distinct features of the Buddha.

====Ten Powers====

The ten powers or strengths include:

# Knowledge of what is possible and impossible (གནས་དང་གནས་མ་ཡིན་པ་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of the results of actions (རྣམ་སྨོན་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of the different aspirations of beings (འགྲོ་བའི་མོས་པ་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of all types of dispositions (ཁམས་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of the different calibers (དབང་པོ་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of all the paths (ལམ་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of all the different states of meditative concentration (བསམ་གཏན་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of previous lives of oneself and others (སྔོན་གྱི་གནས་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of transference, death, and rebirth (འཆི་འཕོ་བ་དང་སྐྱེ་བ་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of the path and results for exhaustion of defilements (ཟག་པ་ཟད་པའི་ལམ་དང་འབྲས་བུ་མཁྱེན་པ་)<ref>Kunsang, ''Gateway to Knowledge'', 3:234-35.</ref>

====Four Fearlessnesses====

The four forms of fearlessnesses are:

# Fearlessness in asserting one’s own perfect realization (རང་དོན་རྟོགས་པ་ཕུན་ཚོགས་ལ་མི་འཇིགས་པ་)
# Fearlessness in asserting one’s own perfect abandonment (རང་དོན་སྤངས་པ་ཕུན་ཚོགས་ལ་མི་འཇིགས་པ་)
# Fearlessness for the sake of others in revealing the path to liberation (གཞན་དོན་ལྨ་སྟོན་པ་ལ་འཇིགས་པ་)
# Fearlessness for the sake of others in revealing potential hindrances on the path (གཞན་དོན་ལམ་གྱི་གེགས་སྟོན་པ་ལ་མི་འཇིགས་པ་)<ref>Kunsang, ''Gateway to Knowledge'', 3:236.</ref>

====Eighteen Distinctive Characteristics====

The eighteen distinct unique characteristics of the Buddha are:

Six associated with the behavior of the Buddha.
# Bodily actions are infallible (སྐུ་ལ་འཁྲུལ་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Speech is without prattle (གསུང་ལ་ཅ་ཅོ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Mind does not lose mindfulness (ཐུགས་ལ་དྲན་པ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Mind is never without meditative concentration (མཉམ་པར་མ་བཞག་པའི་ཐུགས་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Mind does not harbor diverse ideas (འདུ་ཤེས་སྣ་ཚོགས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Mind has no uncritical indifference (མ་བརྟག་པའི་བཏང་སྙོམས་མི་མངའ་བ་)

Six associated with the realization of the Buddha.
# The intention to benefit sentient beings does not wane (སེམས་ཅན་ལ་ཕན་པའི་འདུན་པ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The enthusiasm to help others does not wane (གཞན་དོན་ལ་སྤྲོ་བའི་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The mindfulness to recall all things does not wane (ཆོས་ཀུན་མི་བརྗེད་པའི་དྲན་པ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The wisdom to discern all things does not wane (ཆོས་ཀུན་རྣམ་པར་འབྱེད་པའི་ཤེས་རབ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The freedom from two forms of obscuration does not wane (སྒྲིག་གཉིས་ལས་རྣམ་པར་གྲོལ་བ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The fully liberated pristine wisdom does not wane (རྣམ་པར་གྲོལ་བའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)

Three associated with the activities of the Buddha.
# The Buddha’s physical actions are led and followed by pristine wisdom (སྐུའི་ལས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཡེ་ཤེས་སྔོན་དུ་འགྲོ་ཞིང་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྗེས་སུ་འབྲངས་བ་)
# The Buddha’s verbal actions are led and followed by pristine wisdom (གསུང་གི་ལས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཡེ་ཤེས་སྔོན་དུ་འགྲོ་ཞིང་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྗེས་སུ་འབྲངས་བ་)
# The Buddha’s mental actions are led and followed by pristine wisdom (ཐུགས་ཀྱི་ལས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཡེ་ཤེས་སྔོན་དུ་འགྲོ་ཞིང་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྗེས་སུ་འབྲངས་བ་)

Three associated with the pristine wisdom of the Buddha
# The Buddha’s pristine wisdom is unattached and unobstructed in knowing past times (འདས་པའི་དུས་ལ་མ་ཆགས་མ་ཐོགས་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་གཟིགས་པ་འཇུག་པ་)
# The Buddha’s pristine wisdom is unattached and unobstructed in knowing future times (མ་འོངས་པའི་དུས་ལ་མ་ཆགས་མ་ཐོགས་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་གཟིགས་པ་འཇུག་པ་)
# The Buddha’s pristine wisdom is unattached and unobstructed in knowing present times (ད་ལྟ་བའི་དུས་ལ་མ་ཆགས་མ་ཐོགས་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་གཟིགས་པ་འཇུག་པ་)<ref>Kunsang, ''Gateway to Knowledge'', 3:236–37.</ref>

====Thirty-two Physical Marks====

The thirty-two physical marks of the fully enlightened Buddha are presented in many Buddhist texts, and their enumeration slightly varies in different traditions. The following enumeration is given in Mipham's ''Entry to the Ways of the Learned'':

# On the palms of his hands and the soles of his feet are the designs of a thousand-spoked wheel that protrudes, as if stamped from a mold.
# The soles of his feet are even and well-set, like the belly of a tortoise.
# The fingers on his hands and the toes on his feet are, like the swan, connected with a web [made of light].
# His arms and legs are smooth and firm.
# The seven parts of his body are rounded—the wrists of his hands and ankles of his feet, the two shoulders and his neck, making seven, are rounded by being full, curved, and without indentations.
# His fingers and toes are long.
# These four—the ball and heel of each foot—are prominent and broad.
# Taller than the ordinary man, his body is about seven cubits, large and straight, firm like a diamond, and endowed with the strength of Vishnu.
# No protrusions are visible on his ankles and knees.
# The hairs on his body grow in an upward direction.
# His calves are round, full, and beautiful like those of the ''enaya'' deer.
# His arms are long and beautiful, and when extended they can cover his kneecaps, even without bending his body.
# Like an elephant or a stallion, his genitals, i.e., private parts, redraw up within a sheath.
# His skin is the color of gold, clear and radiant, and has a beautiful shine.
# His skin is thin and smooth.
# Each hair on his body is fine and smooth, singular, and curls to the right.
# The place between his eyebrows is adorned with a coiled hair that is supple, smooth, and white, and which, by nature, has the length of one or three cubits. Coiled clockwise, its size is like the ''kyurura'' fruit, and it resembles a protrusion of silver.
# The torso is expansive like a lion.
# The top of the two shoulders are round like golden vases.
# The two palms are round and full without any indentations.
# His tongue has the quality that whatever taste is experienced becomes most delicious.
# His body, with proportions like the ''nyagrodha'' tree, is upright, balanced, and beautiful.
# The protuberance, which is round, shiny black, and coiled clockwise, is not evident to the sight.
# His tongue, which is naturally large enough to cover his whole face, is long and beautiful.
# His voice, endowed with the melodiousness of Brahma, has these five aspects of clarity: it is intelligible and brings full comprehension, is worthy of listening to and without unpleasant intonations, has depth and resonance, is generous and pleasant to hear, and is unruffled. Alternatively, these can be subdivided into sixty, or into the ''sixty aspects of melodious speech''. . .
# His two cheeks are beautiful, round, full, and resemble the surface of a mirror or the jaws of a lion.
# All his teeth, including the four incisors, have a very white color.
# All the teeth are equal in length and width.
# The teeth are evenly set and are not divided by gaps.
# He has a complete number of forty teeth; twenty each above and below.
# While his eyes, beautiful like sapphire gems, show the primary feature. The particular aspects are these five: the iris in the middle of his eyes are round and shiny black, like a bee, and his eyes have an extremely black pupil at their center; around them, the whites of the eyes, to the right and the left, are extremely white; the two corners have a red hue; the color of the center of the eyes is bluish at the surface; and in their depth they are yellowish like the color of gold. His eyelashes are like those of a supreme heifer, chief among cows.
# The hairs on his upper and lower eyelids are beautifully curved and untangled, like the eyelashes of a cow or calf.<ref>Kunsang, ''Gateway to Knowledge'', 3:239–42.</ref>
|imageposition=50% 37%
|media=<div class="row tsdwiki-border-redfade justify-content-center" style="margin-top: -1rem;"><div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube|id=iwkMwIuk3LE|caption=Ringu Tulku: <em>What Is the Ultimate Goal on the Buddhist path? — Answers for Beginners</em>}}</div><div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube|id=h4dftKIP6iA|caption=H.E. Dagyab Rinpoche: <em>Our Goal Is Not Enlightenment</em>}}</div><div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube|id=YphLMQsI6TE|caption=Matthieu Ricard: <em>Putting Compassion into Action</em>}}</div></div>
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Explore/The Bodhisattva's Goal

2026-10-07T11:13:13Z

KPhuntsho:

{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|subclass=Key Concepts
|theme=The Path of the Bodhisattva
|sub-theme=The Bodhisattva Path
|featured-books=The Way of the Bodhisattva (2006); Arya Nagarjuna's Praise to Satisfying Sentient Beings (and) A Commentary on the Awakening Mind (14th Dalai Lama 2015); Gateway to Knowledge: The Treatise Entitled The Gate for Entering the Way of a Pandita, Vol. 3
|featured-texts=Bodhicaryāvatāra; Sattvārādhanastava; Madhyamakāvatāra; Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra; Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra; Rājaparikathāratnavāli; Mkhas pa'i tshul la 'jug pa'i sgo
|jumbo-image=File:Everest-louis-the goal-squooshed-unsplash (1).jpg
|jumbo-text=The bodhisattva's primary aim is benefiting all sentient beings through compassion and wisdom, ultimately establishing them in perfect enlightenment. Explore the nature of buddhahood—the enlightened bodies, wisdoms, qualities, and spontaneous activities that enable a buddha to fulfill both one's own welfare and that of all beings.
|main-text====Benefitting Sentient Beings===

The primary objective of the bodhisattva path is explicit in the definition of bodhicitta, the defining characteristic of a bodhisattva. Bodhicitta is composed of two components: compassion and wisdom. Through compassion, the bodhisattva feels the suffering of sentient beings and earnestly seeks to eliminate it. Through wisdom, the bodhisattva pursues the most enduring solution—a permanent state of peace and genuine happiness, free from suffering. Buddhahood, the state of perfect enlightenment, is thought to be such a state of genuine and lasting happiness. The bodhisattva works to benefit all sentient beings in every way possible while ultimately aiming to establish them in the state of perfect enlightenment.
The main goal of the bodhisattva endeavor, therefore, is the welfare of all sentient beings. Śāntideva makes this explicit in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.

{{PullBcaVerses|5.101}}

We find the same spirit expressed in Nāgārjuna's ''Praise of Pleasing Sentient Beings'', which Atiśa and Tsultrim Gyalwa translated into Tibetan. In it, the Buddha is quoted as saying:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I have achieved this spiritual attainment because I have benefitted sentient beings. I hold this body solely for the sake of sentient beings.<ref>ང་ཉིད་སེམས་ཅན་ཕན་འདོགས་གྱུར་པས་གྲུབ་འདི་བརྙེས་པ་སྟེ། །སེམས་ཅན་ཁོ་ནའི་དོན་དུ་ང་ཡིས་སྐུ་འདི་ཡང་དག་བཟུང་། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Sattvāradhānastava'' (''Sems can mgu bar bya ba'i bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1125, Bstod tshogs, ka, vol. 1:74b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1125.</ref>
}}
Atiśa illustrates compassionate bodhisattva action with the examples of Nāgārjuna giving his head away, Āryadeva his eyes, and Aśvaghoṣa and Jetāri their limbs to tigers. The Jātaka stories also revolve around a bodhisattva's efforts to benefit sentient beings through various practices.

Numerous statements, stories, and arguments in the sūtras and commentarial treatises underscore that the main objective of bodhisattva practice is to benefit sentient beings. Maitreya and Śāntideva mention that buddhas and bodhisattvas would even happily dive into the deepest hell realm of Unrelenting Pain for the sake of sentient beings.<ref>See ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkara'', 5.26. See also ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', [[Texts/Bodhicaryāvatāra/Verses/6.120|6.120]] and [[Texts/Bodhicaryāvatāra/Verses/8.107|8.107]].</ref>

With this primary motive—to benefit sentient beings, place them in the state of everlasting happiness, and permanently free them from suffering—bodhisattvas earnestly seek the means to accomplish these goals. While there are many ways to benefit sentient beings, not all of them can lead to a permanent state of happiness and the complete eradication of suffering and its causes. As perfect enlightenment is seen as the only reliable and effective way to help sentient beings enjoy everlasting happiness and permanently uproot suffering and its causes, a bodhisattva aims to establish all sentient beings in that very state. Moreover, enlightenment is the most powerful state from which to provide effective, impartial help to all beings. Thus, a bodhisattva seeks buddhahood as the ultimate goal that accomplishes the welfare of both self and others.

Depending on their caliber and courage, a bodhisattva aims to take all sentient beings to buddhahood before oneself, at the same time as oneself, or after oneself. The first type, considered to be of superior caliber, is said to take three countless eons to reach buddhahood, while the second, or middling type, is said to take seven countless eons. The last, or inferior type, takes thirty-three countless eons. Many bodhisattvas of the highest caliber, who have reached the last stage of the path, are said to voluntarily delay their own buddhahood in hopes of leading other sentient beings to enlightenment first.

Irrespective of their calibre, speed, or duration, a bodhisattva goes through the four paths of learning: the path of accumulation, the path of application, the path of seeing, and the path of practice. Having progressed through the ten stages and attained the various qualities, a bodhisattva in the final moments of the tenth stage, called Cloud of Dharma, enters the meditative absorption called Diamond-like Stabilization (''vajropamasamādhi'', རྡོ་རྗེ་ལྟ་བུའི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་). Through this, he or she eradicates the most subtle traces of the obscuration of the knowable (''jñeyāvaraṇam'', ཤེས་བྱའི་སྒྲིབ་པ་), which constitutes the last propensities of dualistic thoughts and conceptual constructs. All forms of ordinary mentation and cognitive processes come to an end, like fire being extinguished due to exhaustion of fuel. Candrakīrti describes this process using the fire metaphor.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=When all the dry firewood of knowables is burnt
Such peace is the ''dharmakāya'' of the buddhas.
There is neither production nor cessation.
As the mind ceases, the enlightened body is directly realized.<ref>ཤེས་བྱའི་བུད་ཤིང་སྐམ་པོ་མ་ལུས་པ། །བསྲེགས་པས་ཞི་དེ་རྒྱལ་རྣམས་ཆོས་སྐུ་སྟེ། །དེ་ཚེ་སྐྱེ་བ་མེད་ཅིང་འགག་པ་མེད། །སེམས་འགགས་པས་དེ་སྐུ་ཡིས་མངོན་སུམ་མཛད། ། Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, dbu ma, vol. 102, 'a, 216b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref>
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At this point, the bodhisattva finally attains the path of non-learning and the eleventh stage, called Universal Light (''samantaprabha'', ཀུན་ཏུ་འོད་), thus becoming a fully enlightened buddha. He or she reaches the final goal and destination of the bodhisattva's long journey, and the process of spiritual transformation is completed.

===Buddhahood===

Many Mahāyāna sūtras and commentarial writings discuss the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as the resultant goal of the bodhisattva path, although they differ in their theories of buddhahood. A quick overview of the nature, types, intrinsic characteristics, qualities, and activities of the fully enlightened buddha is presented below based on the theories of buddhahood in the writings of Maitreya, Nāgārjuna, Candrakīrti, Śāntideva, and the Tibetan commentaries on the writings of these Indian authors. These authors present the resultant state of buddhahood as one in which a bodhisattva fulfills the purposes of both oneself and others. The fulfillment of one's own purpose or objective is presented through the actualization of the ''dharmakāya'', or truth body (ཆོས་སྐུ་), and the fulfillment of others' purpose is presented through the projection of corporeal bodies (''rūpakāya'', གཟུགས་སྐུ་). In this way, buddhahood is often discussed in the schema of the two types of enlightenment bodies. Maitreya states in his ''Ultimate Continuum'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's own welfare and the welfare of others consist of the ultimate ''kāya''
And the seeming ''kāya'' that is based on it, respectively.<ref>This is found in chapter 3, verse 1ab: རང་དོན་གཞན་དོན་དོན་དམ་སྐུ་དང་ནི། །དེ་ལ་བརྟེན་པ་ཀུན་རྫོབ་སྐུ་ཉིད་དེ། ། Maitreya, ''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'' (''Theg pa chen po rgyud bla ma'i bstan bcos''), in Derge Tengyur D4024, sems tsam, vol. 123, phi, 65b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4024. See this verse on the [https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Texts/Ratnagotravibh%C4%81ga_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nottaratantra%C5%9B%C4%81stra/Root_Verses/Verse_III.1 Tsadra Buddha-Nature site]</ref>
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What Maitreya calls the ultimate ''kāya'', or real enlightened body, refers to the ''dharmakāya'', or truth body, and the seeming ''kāya'', or relative enlightened body, refers to the corporeal forms which are manifested from the state of buddhahood. In the chapter on buddhahood in ''The Ultimate Continuum'', Maitreya discusses the state of perfect enlightenment through eight points: its nature, causes, results, functions, qualities, expressions, temporal eternity, and inconceivability. (1) In its nature, buddhahood is pure in being both naturally pristine and totally free from adventitious impurities. (2) In terms of causes, buddhahood is brought about by the cultivation of the wisdom discerning ultimate truth in a meditative absorption and by the compassionate engagement during post-meditative periods. Explaining the cause, Nāgārjuna in his ''Garland of Jewels'' states that out of the two forms of accumulations, the accumulation of pristine wisdom leads to the attainment of the ''dharmakāya'' and the accumulation of merit leads to the attainment of the ''rūpakāya'', or corporeal forms.<ref>སངས་རྒྱས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་གཟུགས་སྐུ་ནི། །བསོད་ནམས་ཚོགས་ལས་བྱུང་བ་སྟེ། །ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྐུ་ནི་མདོར་བསྡུ་ན། །རྒྱལ་པོ་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཚོགས་ལས་འཁྲུངས། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref>

With regard to (3) the resultant aspect of buddhahood, this state is presented as a result that is not generated but revealed—purified of adventitious defilements, obscurations, and their subtle traces. The agency of buddhahood to fulfill both one’s and others' welfare is described as (4) the function or instrumentality of buddhahood. Devoting a whole chapter on (5) the qualities of buddhahood, Maitreya classifies these qualities into the thirty-two enlightened qualities of being free from impurities (བྲལ་བའི་ཡོན་ཏན་), associated with the ''dharmakāya'', and the thirty-two enlightened qualities which are cultivated (''སྨིན་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་''). The former includes ten powers, four modes of being fearless, and eighteen unique qualities of the Buddha, and the latter refers to the thirty-two marks of the Buddha's body. The state of perfect enlightenment endowed with such boundless qualities is then (6) expressed or taxonomically presented through the three enlightened modes of the ''dharmakāyā'' (truth body), ''saṃbhogakāya'' (enjoyment body), and ''nirmāṇakāya'' (emanation body). These modes and qualities are not impermanent or temporally bound but are qualified by (7) the feature of being eternal and permanent as well as by being beyond ordinary conception and thought. Thus, they are (7) inconceivable and ineffable realities which only the enlightened Buddha can fully fathom and experience.

===Enlightened Bodies, Wisdom, and Activities===

In the most common presentation of buddhahood, we find it presented through the three or four enlightened bodies, four wisdoms, and the enlightened activities of the Buddha. Enlightened bodies are initially classified into ''dharmakāya'', or truth body, and ''rūpakāya'', or corporeal body. The former is further divided into ''svabhāvikakāya'' (ངོ་བོ་ཉིད་སྐུ་), or nature body, and ''jñānadharmakāya'' (ཡེ་ཤེས་ཆོས་སྐུ་), or pristine wisdom truth body. The first refers to the open and empty nature of buddhahood, which is free from all impurities. It is normally defined as the sphere of reality that is endowed with twofold purities (དག་པ་གཉིས་ལྡན་གྱི་དབྱིངས་): natural purity and purity from adventitious stains. The pristine wisdom body refers to the cognitive and conscious aspect of the Buddha's spirit. It is often referred to as the all-knowing pristine wisdom (ཐམས་ཅད་མཁྱེན་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་) of the Buddha. These two bodies—representing the empty, open aspect and the cognitive aspect of buddhahood respectively—make up the inner formless spirit of the Buddha.

The Buddha's powerful inner spirit manifests in a pure physical form within a heavenly realm perceptible only to fully enlightened buddhas and advanced bodhisattvas on the pure stages. This is the ''saṃbhogakāya'' (ལོངས་སྤྱོད་རྫོགས་སྐུ་), or enjoyment body. It is physically characterized by the thirty-two marks and eight tokens of an enlightened being and is described as being endowed with the five specificities (ངེས་པ་ལྔ་ལྡན་). The five specific features are (1) abiding in the specific pure realm of Akaniṣṭha, (2) having a specific form with the thirty-two marks, (3) being surrounded by a specific retinue of only advanced bodhisattvas, (4) giving only specific teachings on Mahāyāna, and (5) doing so in perpetuity.

From the celestial form of the enjoyment body appear countless emanations to help ordinary sentient beings, like the reflections of the moon shining in multiple water bodies according to the quality of the water. These bodies are known as ''nirmāṇakāya''s (སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་), or emanation bodies. The best of the emanation bodies, known as the supreme emanation body (''paramanirmāṇakāya'', མཆོག་གི་སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་), also bears the thirty-two marks and eighty tokens and displays the twelve phases of the Buddha's deeds in the world. The second type of emanation is the emanation body by birth (''janmanirmāṇakāya'', སྐྱེ་བ་སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་), which includes the many kinds of births buddhas take as saints, leaders, animals, etc. Emanations as artists or artisans associated with arts and crafts are known as artisan emanations (བཟོ་སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་). The numerous forms buddhas take to benefit sentient beings—such as bridges, lamps, trees, paintings, statues, etc.—are known as variegated emanations (སྣ་ཚོགས་སྤྲུལ་སྐུ་).

In the Mahāyāna theory of buddhahood, all these bodies of the Buddha, including the physical manifestations, are considered to be essentially pristine wisdom. There is no materiality and opaque substance with spatial and temporal limitations. Even what appear as physical bodies with shapes and forms are in essence illusory embodiments of pristine wisdom. Thus, the whole world of the buddhas is presented through the various types of pristine wisdom.

:(1) The mirror-like wisdom (''ādarśajñāna'', མེ་ལོང་ཡེ་ཤེས་) is the pure openness of the innate nature of the mind and the purified state of the store-consciousness one has as an ordinary sentient being.

:(2) The wisdom of equality (''samatājñānam'', མཉམ་ཉིད་ཡེ་ཤེས་) is the nature of the mind being free from prejudices, partiality, and bias. It is the purified version of the egocentric distorted mind in ordinary sentient beings.

:(3) The discriminating wisdom (''pratyavekṣaṇājñāna'', སོར་རྟོག་ཡེ་ཤེས་) is the mind's innate ability to discern and realize. It is the purified version of the mental consciousness in ordinary sentient beings.

:(4) The all-accomplishing wisdom (''kṛtyānuṣṭhānajñānam'', བྱ་སྒྲུབ་ཡེ་ཤེས་) is the positive zeal and dynamism in the true nature of the mind to do good and benefit sentient beings. It is the purified version of the sensory consciousness in ordinary sentient beings.

:(5) To this, one may also add, particularly in the Vajrayāna context, another type of wisdom called the wisdom of ''dharmadhātu'' (''dharmadhātujñāna'', ཆོས་དབྱིངས་ཡེ་ཤེས་), which is the pure luminous foundation of all things.

Buddhahood, in brief, is composed of the four types of enlightened bodies and five kinds of pristine wisdom, which lead to the enlightened activities.

Any virtuous and beneficial activities that arise from these different forms of enlightened bodies are considered the enlightened activities of the Buddha. They are said to be as extensive as space and are given the two unique characteristics of being totally spontaneous and invariably continuous. As all thoughts, concepts, sense of individuality, agency, and action dissolve in the state of perfect enlightenment, there is no intentional will to act nor any deliberate or contrived action. The enlightened actions of the buddhas occur without premeditated intention, plan, or effort. Because of the immense investment made by the Buddha as a bodhisattva while on the path to enlightenment, the activities of the Buddha naturally ensue spontaneously. Thus, examples such as the wish-fulfilling gem and wish-granting tree from Indian cultural lore are commonly used to illustrate the thought-free and effortless activities of the Buddha. Candrakīrti compares it to a potter's wheel turning long after the potter has given the wheel a push. Similarly, Śāntideva likens it to a monument that has been injected with the power of a Garuda spell in the past yet continues to help cure illnesses long after the person who created it has passed away.

===Elements of Perfect Enlightenment===

Although considered inconceivable and ineffable, many different categories, elements, and features are used to present the state of perfect enlightenment, particularly the state of ''dharmakāya''. Mipham, in his ''Entry to the Ways of the Learned'', presents buddhahood through twenty-one sets of undefiled dharmas (''zag pa med pa’i sde tshan nyer gcig'').

====Twenty-one Undefiled Dharmas====

# The thirty-seven dharmas of enlightenment (བྱང་ཆུབ་ཕྱོགས་ཀྱི་ཆོས་སོ་བདུན་)
# The four immeasurable thoughts (ཚད་མེད་བཞི་)
# The eight modes of liberation (རྣམ་པར་ཐར་པ་བརྒྱད་)
# The nine states of meditative absorption for successive abiding (མཐར་གྱིས་གནས་པའི་སྙོམས་འཇུག་དགུ་)
# The eight sense spheres of suppression (ཟིལ་གྱིས་གནོན་པའི་སྐྱེ་མཆེད་བརྒྱད་)
# The ten totalities (ཟད་པར་བཅུ་)
# Elimination of defiling emotions (ཉོན་མོངས་མེད་པ་)
# Effortless knowing (སྨོན་ནས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# The six forms of clairvoyance (མངོན་ཤེས་དྲུག་)
# The four forms of discernment (སོ་སོར་ཡང་དག་པའི་རིག་པ་བཞི་)
# The four forms of purity (དག་པ་བཞི་)
# The ten masteries (དབང་བཅུ་)
# The ten powers/strengths (སྟོབས་བཅུ་)
# The four forms of fearlessness (མི་འཇིགས་པ་བཞི་)
# The eighteen distinct traits (མ་འདྲེས་པ་བཅོ་བརྒྱད་)
# Absence of reserve (སྲུང་བ་མེད་པ་)
# The three forms of mindfulness (དྲན་པ་ཉེ་བར་བཞག་པ་གསུམ་)
# Infallibility (བསྙེལ་བ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Total eradication of habitual propensities (བག་ཆགས་ཡང་དག་པར་བཅོམ་པ་)
# Great compassion (ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཆེན་པོ་)
# Omniscience in knowing all aspects (རྣམ་པ་ཐམས་ཅད་མཁྱེན་པ་)<ref>See Erik Pema Kunsang, trans., ''Gateway to Knowledge: The Treatise Entitled The Gate for Entering the Way of a Pandita'', by Mipham Rinpoche (Bouddhanath: Rangjung Yeshe, 2002), 3:229-40.</ref>

Maitreya, in ''The Ultimate Continuum'', highlights thirty-two qualities of the ''dharmakāya'' and calls them qualities of being free (བྲལ་བའི་ཡོན་ཏན་) from impurities. These include the ten powers or strengths, four forms of fearlessness, and the eighteen unique and distinct features of the Buddha.

====Ten Powers====

The ten powers or strengths include:

# Knowledge of what is possible and impossible (གནས་དང་གནས་མ་ཡིན་པ་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of the results of actions (རྣམ་སྨོན་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of the different aspirations of beings (འགྲོ་བའི་མོས་པ་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of all types of dispositions (ཁམས་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of the different calibers (དབང་པོ་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of all the paths (ལམ་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of all the different states of meditative concentration (བསམ་གཏན་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of previous lives of oneself and others (སྔོན་གྱི་གནས་སྣ་ཚོགས་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of transference, death, and rebirth (འཆི་འཕོ་བ་དང་སྐྱེ་བ་མཁྱེན་པ་)
# Knowledge of the path and results for exhaustion of defilements (ཟག་པ་ཟད་པའི་ལམ་དང་འབྲས་བུ་མཁྱེན་པ་)<ref>Kunsang, ''Gateway to Knowledge'', 3:234-35.</ref>

====Four Fearlessnesses====

The four forms of fearlessnesses are:

# Fearlessness in asserting one’s own perfect realization (རང་དོན་རྟོགས་པ་ཕུན་ཚོགས་ལ་མི་འཇིགས་པ་)
# Fearlessness in asserting one’s own perfect abandonment (རང་དོན་སྤངས་པ་ཕུན་ཚོགས་ལ་མི་འཇིགས་པ་)
# Fearlessness for the sake of others in revealing the path to liberation (གཞན་དོན་ལྨ་སྟོན་པ་ལ་འཇིགས་པ་)
# Fearlessness for the sake of others in revealing potential hindrances on the path (གཞན་དོན་ལམ་གྱི་གེགས་སྟོན་པ་ལ་མི་འཇིགས་པ་)<ref>Kunsang, ''Gateway to Knowledge'', 3:236.</ref>

====Eighteen Distinctive Characteristics====

The eighteen distinct unique characteristics of the Buddha are:

Six associated with the behavior of the Buddha.
# Bodily actions are infallible (སྐུ་ལ་འཁྲུལ་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Speech is without prattle (གསུང་ལ་ཅ་ཅོ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Mind does not lose mindfulness (ཐུགས་ལ་དྲན་པ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Mind is never without meditative concentration (མཉམ་པར་མ་བཞག་པའི་ཐུགས་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Mind does not harbor diverse ideas (འདུ་ཤེས་སྣ་ཚོགས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# Mind has no uncritical indifference (མ་བརྟག་པའི་བཏང་སྙོམས་མི་མངའ་བ་)

Six associated with the realization of the Buddha.
# The intention to benefit sentient beings does not wane (སེམས་ཅན་ལ་ཕན་པའི་འདུན་པ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The enthusiasm to help others does not wane (གཞན་དོན་ལ་སྤྲོ་བའི་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The mindfulness to recall all things does not wane (ཆོས་ཀུན་མི་བརྗེད་པའི་དྲན་པ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The wisdom to discern all things does not wane (ཆོས་ཀུན་རྣམ་པར་འབྱེད་པའི་ཤེས་རབ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The freedom from two forms of obscuration does not wane (སྒྲིག་གཉིས་ལས་རྣམ་པར་གྲོལ་བ་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)
# The fully liberated pristine wisdom does not wane (རྣམ་པར་གྲོལ་བའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཉམས་པ་མི་མངའ་བ་)

Three associated with the activities of the Buddha.
# The Buddha’s physical actions are led and followed by pristine wisdom (སྐུའི་ལས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཡེ་ཤེས་སྔོན་དུ་འགྲོ་ཞིང་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྗེས་སུ་འབྲངས་བ་)
# The Buddha’s verbal actions are led and followed by pristine wisdom (གསུང་གི་ལས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཡེ་ཤེས་སྔོན་དུ་འགྲོ་ཞིང་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྗེས་སུ་འབྲངས་བ་)
# The Buddha’s mental actions are led and followed by pristine wisdom (ཐུགས་ཀྱི་ལས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཡེ་ཤེས་སྔོན་དུ་འགྲོ་ཞིང་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྗེས་སུ་འབྲངས་བ་)

Three associated with the pristine wisdom of the Buddha
# The Buddha’s pristine wisdom is unattached and unobstructed in knowing past times (འདས་པའི་དུས་ལ་མ་ཆགས་མ་ཐོགས་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་གཟིགས་པ་འཇུག་པ་)
# The Buddha’s pristine wisdom is unattached and unobstructed in knowing future times (མ་འོངས་པའི་དུས་ལ་མ་ཆགས་མ་ཐོགས་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་གཟིགས་པ་འཇུག་པ་)
# The Buddha’s pristine wisdom is unattached and unobstructed in knowing present times (ད་ལྟ་བའི་དུས་ལ་མ་ཆགས་མ་ཐོགས་པའི་ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་གཟིགས་པ་འཇུག་པ་)<ref>Kunsang, ''Gateway to Knowledge'', 3:236–37.</ref>

====Thirty-two Physical Marks====

The thirty-two physical marks of the fully enlightened Buddha are presented in many Buddhist texts, and their enumeration slightly varies in different traditions. The following enumeration is given in Mipham's ''Entry to the Ways of the Learned'':

# On the palms of his hands and the soles of his feet are the designs of a thousand-spoked wheel that protrudes, as if stamped from a mold.
# The soles of his feet are even and well-set, like the belly of a tortoise.
# The fingers on his hands and the toes on his feet are, like the swan, connected with a web [made of light].
# His arms and legs are smooth and firm.
# The seven parts of his body are rounded—the wrists of his hands and ankles of his feet, the two shoulders and his neck, making seven, are rounded by being full, curved, and without indentations.
# His fingers and toes are long.
# These four—the ball and heel of each foot—are prominent and broad.
# Taller than the ordinary man, his body is about seven cubits, large and straight, firm like a diamond, and endowed with the strength of Vishnu.
# No protrusions are visible on his ankles and knees.
# The hairs on his body grow in an upward direction.
# His calves are round, full, and beautiful like those of the ''enaya'' deer.
# His arms are long and beautiful, and when extended they can cover his kneecaps, even without bending his body.
# Like an elephant or a stallion, his genitals, i.e., private parts, redraw up within a sheath.
# His skin is the color of gold, clear and radiant, and has a beautiful shine.
# His skin is thin and smooth.
# Each hair on his body is fine and smooth, singular, and curls to the right.
# The place between his eyebrows is adorned with a coiled hair that is supple, smooth, and white, and which, by nature, has the length of one or three cubits. Coiled clockwise, its size is like the ''kyurura'' fruit, and it resembles a protrusion of silver.
# The torso is expansive like a lion.
# The top of the two shoulders are round like golden vases.
# The two palms are round and full without any indentations.
# His tongue has the quality that whatever taste is experienced becomes most delicious.
# His body, with proportions like the ''nyagrodha'' tree, is upright, balanced, and beautiful.
# The protuberance, which is round, shiny black, and coiled clockwise, is not evident to the sight.
# His tongue, which is naturally large enough to cover his whole face, is long and beautiful.
# His voice, endowed with the melodiousness of Brahma, has these five aspects of clarity: it is intelligible and brings full comprehension, is worthy of listening to and without unpleasant intonations, has depth and resonance, is generous and pleasant to hear, and is unruffled. Alternatively, these can be subdivided into sixty, or into the ''sixty aspects of melodious speech''. . .
# His two cheeks are beautiful, round, full, and resemble the surface of a mirror or the jaws of a lion.
# All his teeth, including the four incisors, have a very white color.
# All the teeth are equal in length and width.
# The teeth are evenly set and are not divided by gaps.
# He has a complete number of forty teeth; twenty each above and below.
# While his eyes, beautiful like sapphire gems, show the primary feature. The particular aspects are these five: the iris in the middle of his eyes are round and shiny black, like a bee, and his eyes have an extremely black pupil at their center; around them, the whites of the eyes, to the right and the left, are extremely white; the two corners have a red hue; the color of the center of the eyes is bluish at the surface; and in their depth they are yellowish like the color of gold. His eyelashes are like those of a supreme heifer, chief among cows.
# The hairs on his upper and lower eyelids are beautifully curved and untangled, like the eyelashes of a cow or calf.<ref>Kunsang, ''Gateway to Knowledge'', 3:239–42.</ref>
|imageposition=50% 37%
|media=<div class="row tsdwiki-border-redfade justify-content-center" style="margin-top: -1rem;"><div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube|id=iwkMwIuk3LE|caption=Ringu Tulku: <em>What Is the Ultimate Goal on the Buddhist path? — Answers for Beginners</em>}}</div><div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube|id=h4dftKIP6iA|caption=H.E. Dagyab Rinpoche: <em>Our Goal Is Not Enlightenment</em>}}</div><div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube|id=YphLMQsI6TE|caption=Matthieu Ricard: <em>Putting Compassion into Action</em>}}</div></div>
}}

Explore/The Bodhisattva Path

2026-10-07T10:09:55Z

KPhuntsho:

{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|subclass=Key Concepts
|theme=The Path of the Bodhisattva
|featured-books=The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed Enlightenment; Buddhism: One Teacher, Many Traditions (14th Dalai Lama and Chodron 2014); The Jewel Ornament of Liberation (Konchog Gyaltsen); Introduction to the Middle Way
|featured-texts=Madhyamakāvatāra; Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra; Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ; Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstrakārikā; Daśabhūmikasūtra; Daśabhūmika; Dam chos yid bzhin gyi nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan; Lam rim chen mo
|jumbo-image=File:Adrien-tutin-x8xJpClTvR0-unsplash (1).jpg
|jumbo-text=Explore the process of bodhisattva transformation through the five-path journey that spans accumulation, application, seeing, practice, and non-learning. Navigate through ten progressive stages—from Supreme Joy to Cloud of Dharma—where spiritual warriors develop extraordinary powers, transcend ordinary existence, and ultimately achieve perfect enlightenment to benefit all beings.
|main-text=<div class="drop-cap">
'''[[File:The Bodhisattva Path.mp3|thumb|Listen Here! Read by Laura Swan. <small>[[Media:The Bodhisattva Path.mp3|⬇ Download audio file]]</small>|left]]'''<br>
The English word ''path'' in the phrase ''the bodhisattva path'' is a translation of the Sanskrit term ''mārga'' or the Tibetan word ''lam''. These terms in Buddhist soteriology generally refer to the spiritual road or trajectory covering many phases of progression toward a goal. Thus, the bodhisattva path normally refers to the different chapters and stages of spiritual development including the final state of enlightenment. However, sometimes these terms are also used to refer to the actual practices that constitute the way or path to enlightenment. Thus, the ten virtuous actions, four immeasurables, six perfections, etc., are also considered the bodhisattva path. Śāntideva's ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', for instance, mainly discusses the practices that a bodhisattva should adopt, but Candrakīrti's ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' presents both the practices and the different stages of progression, as does Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''.

In this section, following the common nomenclature, the phrase ''bodhisattva path'' shall refer to the course of a bodhisattva's spiritual development and process of enlightenment. It represents the road or journey an individual is supposed to follow. Such a process of or path to enlightenment in most Buddhist traditions is divided into five phases: the path of accumulation (''saṃbhāramārga'', ཚོགས་ལམ་), the path of application (''prayogamārga'', སྦྱོར་ལམ་), the path of seeing (''darśanamārga'', མཐོང་ལམ་), the path of practice (''bhāvanāmārga'', སྒོམ་ལམ་), and the path of non-learning (''aśaikṣamārga'', མི་སློབ་ལམ་). In the lower Buddhist vehicles or schools, the five paths are presented in the framework of the four persons, including a stream enterer (''śrotāpanna'', རྒྱུན་ཞུགས་), once-returner (''sakṛdāgāmin'', ལན་གཅིག་ཕྱིར་འོང་), non-returner (''anāgāmin'', ཕྱིར་མི་འོང་), and foe destroyer (''arhat'', དགྲ་བཅོམ་), who has reached nirvāṇa.

In the case of the Mahāyāna path, which a bodhisattva must follow to reach buddhahood, or the state of perfect enlightenment, the journey is divided into five paths (''pañcamārga'', ལམ་ལྔ་), and the third and fourth paths are aligned to the ten stages (''daśabhūmi'', ས་བཅུ་). The following passages present the five paths, their subphases, and the ten stages and what practices are mainly associated with such levels of progress.

<h3>The Path of Accumulation</h3>

<h4>The inferior path of accumulation</h4>

The first level on the path to enlightenment is called the path of accumulation, as the beginner bodhisattva focuses on accumulating merit and virtues which serve as provisions for the path. A bodhisattva enters this first level of the bodhisattva path when he or she gives rise to a genuine thought of awakening, or ''bodhicitta''. This path has three levels called the inferior, middling, and superior path of accumulation.

On the first level of the inferior path of accumulation, a practitioner focuses on the practice of the four points of mindfulness (''catvāri smṛtyūpasthānā'', དྲན་པ་ཉེ་བར་བཞག་པ་བཞི་): the mindfulness of the body, sensation, mind, and phenomena. Patrul Rinpoche, following Asaṅga's ''Compendium of Direct Knowledge'', also adds that a practitioner must have discipline for practice, interest to practice, and the curiosity to learn.

<h4>The middle path of accumulation</h4>
On this level, a practitioner continues to have the discipline and interest and also meditates on the four points of mindfulness. However, the practitioner must put forth more effort, and such effort is presented through four points of primary efforts (''caturṇāṃ samyakprahāṇānām'', ཡང་དག་པར་སྤོང་བ་བཞི་). They are:
#Stopping negative things which have not arisen from arising
#Abandoning negatives things which have arisen
#Cultivating positive things which have not arisen
#Enhancing positive things which have arisen

<h4>The superior path of accumulation</h4>
The superior path of accumulation is the last phase of the path of accumulation. On this stage, the focus is on meditation and developing concentration. A bodhisattva develops the four spiritual legs of meditation which can lead to magical powers and the ability to perform miracles. These four points, known as the four legs of magical powers (''catvāra ṛddhipādā'', རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་བཞི་), are:

#The leg of magical power of intention (''chanda ṛddhipāda'', འདུན་པ་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་)
#The leg of magical power of effort (''virya ṛddhipāda'', བརྩོན་འགྲུས་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་)
#The leg of magical power of thought (''citta ṛddhipāda'', བསམ་པ་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་)
#The leg of magical power of examination (''mīmaṃsā ṛddhipāda'', དཔྱོད་པ་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་)

The four legs refer to the four facets or components of meditation that lead to supernatural power. Intention or aspiration is the willpower to engage in meditation, and this is followed by effort or diligence, which is crucial for persisting in the practice. Only through diligence can one reach the point of single-pointed concentration, which is the third leg, thought. The fourth leg of examination refers to the state of meditation in which one is free from major problems of distraction and mental sinking and can discern the subtle features or properties of the object of meditation. It is a stage where one transcends a rough focus and where the mind sharpens and easily focuses on the object. Given such meditative concentration, a bodhisattva can attain magical powers such as clairvoyance and the ability to travel to buddha realms. More importantly, the bodhisattva can enter the meditative state called "the stream of Dharma" (''srotānugatasamādhi'', ཆོས་རྒྱུན་གྱི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་), which helps the bodhisattva retain an enormous amount of teachings in their memory.

<h3>The Path of Application</h3>
The path of application covers the last phase of ordinary existence after having developed significant spiritual powers of discipline, meditation, and wisdom. On this level, a bodhisattva practitioner attains one of the six states of concentration which is considered highly pliable and conducive for practice. Patrul Rinpoche explains that this level is called the path of application or engagement, as the practitioner applies himself or herself to the practice leading to the non-conceptual pristine wisdom, which directly discerns the true nature of things. This level is divided into four sublevels of heat, peak, patience, and supreme worldly Dharma, each with its own special marks of spiritual development.

<h4>The Level of Heat</h4>
The most important bodhisattva practice is the cultivation of pristine wisdom, which discerns the true nature of all phenomena. Such pristine wisdom or the direct non-conceptual experience of truth is compared to fire, as it illuminates reality and burns misconceptions. However, such pristine wisdom is attained only on the path of seeing. At the beginning of the path of application, a bodhisattva practitioner only starts to feel the heat of such a wisdom fire, signaling the approaching fire. Thus, this level is called heat. Nonetheless, a bodhisattva practitioner on this level starts to have a profound experience, if not direct cognition, of truth. Patrul Rinpoche explains that if one were rubbing sticks to create fire, before the flame starts, one feels the heat. Similarly, on this level, one feels the heat preceding the flame. In another example, if the direct experience of the ultimate truth were like seeing the sun, here the practitioner sees the first sign of light. However, on this level and the level of Peak, there is no certainty about when the direct experience will occur. The practices on this level and the next level are the five powers of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom.

<h4>The Level of Peak</h4>
This level is called Peak, as it is the best or peak of worldly virtuous actions. The practitioner continues to practice the five powers. The power of faith refers to the strong faith in the realization of truth and the desire to actualize it, and the power of effort is the persistence in practice to bring about the realization. The power of mindfulness concerns the practice of discipline, the power of concentration concerns the practice of meditation, and the power of wisdom concerns the practice of wisdom. These three are what are known as the three higher trainings and cover the entire spectrum of Buddhist practice.

On the level of Heat, the practitioner obtains the luminous experience, like the light at dawn. But on the level of Peak, the practitioner can expand and multiply such experience. Thus, Heat is associated with the meditative state of attaining light (''ālokalabdhasamādhi'', སྣང་བ་ཐོབ་པའི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་), and Peak is associated with the meditative state of spreading light (''ālokavṛddhisamādhi'', སྣང་བ་འཆེད་པའི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་).

On the level of Heat, a practitioner investigates the nature of desire and attachment to external worldly objects, realizes the lack of real existence in extroverted thoughts, and realizes the reflexive nature of luminous awareness. The practitioner on the level of Heat abandons attachment to the objects belonging to the realm of ordinary existence. When the practitioner attains the level of Peak, he or she realizes the lack of real existence even in matters associated with nirvāṇa or enlightenment. Thus, the practitioner abandons grasping at extroverted thoughts of enlightenment.

<h4>The Level of Patience</h4>
The third stage on the path of application is the level of Patience. It is called Patience because a practitioner is no longer unsettled by the experience of reality and has developed the ability or patience to fathom the true nature of reality. Once on this level, it is said that the practitioner will never fall to the lower realms of rebirth. Thus, a bodhisattva is assured of a happy rebirth. His or her powers of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom are also much stronger and they are now called the five strengths (''pañcabala'', སྟོབས་ལྔ་). Here, practitioners have the ability to vanquish and crush the afflictive emotions.

<h4>The Level of Supreme Worldly Dharma</h4>
A bodhisattva continues to cultivate the five strengths, and in the final stages of the path of application, almost gets a vivid experience of the true nature of reality. The true nature of reality in the Buddhist context refers to the way things are or to objective truth, such as the impermanent nature of conditioned things, the dissatisfactory nature of all defiled entities, the nonexistence of the self or person, and the emptiness of inherent existence. On this level, a practitioner nearly has an explicit, nonconceptual experience of truth, although it is not yet a direct perception. Because it is the highest point of an ordinary existence before the practitioner becomes a sublime being, this level is called Supreme Worldly Dharma, or "Peak of Worldly Dharma" (འཇིག་རྟེན་པའི་ཆོས་ཀྱི་མཆོག་).

<h3>The Path of Seeing (མཐོང་ལམ་, ''Tonglam'')</h3>
The path of seeing is the first stage of a sublime being (''ārya'', འཕགས་པ་), and it is aligned with the first stage of the ten bodhisattva stages (''daśabodhisattvabhūmi'', བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་ས་བཅུ་). After persistent cultivation of the insight into the nature of reality, a practitioner eventually gains a direct experience or bare, nonconceptual realization of the true nature of things. His or her understanding of the truth becomes a direct perception and experience of the truth. Such a level of realization marks the path of seeing and the attainment of the state of a sublime being.

In general, the truth that a practitioner directly experiences includes the four noble truths and their associated characteristics, such as impermanence, suffering, nonself, etc. According to Mipham Gyatso, when a practitioner sees the true nature of suffering associated with the desire realm, such an insight or realization is called patience for knowing reality (''dharmajñānakṣānti'', ཆོས་ཤེས་པའི་བཟོད་པ་). This is also the antidotal knowledge known as the uninterrupted path (''ānantaryamārga'', བར་ཆད་མེད་ལམ་) which leads to freedom from the associated shackles. The awareness that one has seen the true nature of suffering associated with the desire realm is known as awareness of the truth (''dharmajñāna'', ཆོས་ཤེས་པ་). This aspect of being free from defilements which obscure the true nature of suffering is also known as the path of liberation (''vimuktimārga'', རྣམ་གྲོལ་ལམ་).

When a practitioner realizes the true nature of suffering associated with the upper (form and formless) realms, such a realization is called subsequent patience (''anvayakṣānti'', རྗེས་སུ་བཟོད་པ་) for knowing reality. The awareness that one has seen the true nature of suffering associated with the upper realms is known as the subsequent awareness (''anvayajñāna'', རྗེས་སུ་ཤེས་པ་) of the truth. The patience for knowing the reality of the upper realm is the uninterrupted path, and the freedom from defilements which obscures such reality is the path of liberation. When one applies this to the three other noble truths of the causes of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering, we get a total of sixteen aspects or phases. Some claim that these are sixteen moments occurring in a sequence, while others argue these are aspects arising simultaneously.

In the context of the Mahāyāna path, the bodhisattva path of seeing is not normally presented through these sixteen moments. A bodhisattva on the path of seeing is said to be singularly immersed in the nonconceptual and nondual experience of emptiness, the ultimate nature of all phenomena. Because the bodhisattva immersed in such a deep state of realization is said to experience great bliss, this level on the bodhisattva path is also known as Supreme Joy (''pramuditā'', རབ་ཏུ་དགའ་བ་). On the path of seeing, a bodhisattva excels in the practice of giving, as he/she has come to see the emptiness of all things and is willing to give away everything. In the post-meditation phase, a bodhisattva is said to be able to give parts of one's own body with joy, visit a hundred buddha realms, have visions of a hundred buddhas, move a hundred worlds, live a hundred eons, etc.

The path of seeing is primarily associated with the practice of discriminating wisdom, which is the wisdom that can directly perceive the true nature of all phenomena. Along with discriminating wisdom, a practitioner also undertakes other limbs of enlightenment, which include mindfulness, effort, joy, agility, concentration, and equanimity. Mindfulness maintains constant awareness of the true nature of things, effort or zeal makes the practitioner engage in truth happily, joy makes the practitioner rejoice in the realization, agility make him/her engage in it with nimbleness, concentration avoids distraction from experiencing the truth, and equanimity helps have neither attachment nor aversion to the experience of truth. The practice of these seven limbs of enlightenment are highlighted as practices on the path of seeing, although they are practiced throughout the entire bodhisattva path.

<h3>The Path of Practice</h3>
Having directly experienced the true nature of things on the path of seeing, a bodhisattva must continue the practices in order to perfect them. The path of practice, which spans from the second until the tenth of bodhisattva stages, is the fourth out of the five paths. The main set of practices associated with this phase of bodhisattva spiritual evolution is the eightfold path of the sublime beings (''āryāṣṭāṅgamārga'', འཕགས་པའི་ལམ་ཡན་ལག་བརྒྱད་). This set is common to all Buddhist traditions and often appears alongside the four noble truths as teachings delivered by the Buddha in his first sermon in Deer Park. They are the right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditative concentration.

Right view, in the context of the Mahāyāna path, refers to the insight of the ultimate nature of things, particularly to the nonconceptual pristine wisdom which realizes the nature of emptiness from all elaborations. Right intention is virtuous thought which is not contaminated by defiling emotions but inspired by compassion, and right speech includes words and forms of communication which are beneficial and free from negative elements. In his ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', Śāntideva describes right speech as having eight characteristics.
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Right action is any deed or action which is morally righteous and benevolent by nature. Mahāyāna ethics focuses on altruistic actions motivated by compassion and concern for the greater good of sentient beings. Thus, an action motivated by bodhicitta is often the highest form of positive action. Right livelihood refers to an ethical way of life and source of living which is free from the pursuit of worldly desire. Eschewing sources of living which cause harm to others, right livelihood is informed by a sense of contentment for oneself and a relentless zeal to benefit others. Such indomitable and unwavering enthusiasm and diligence to benefit sentient beings constitute right effort.

To engage in the bodhisattva practices with carefulness, introspection, and conscientiousness and to be aware of the needs of other beings and of the true nature of phenomena is right mindfulness. Finally, right meditative concentration is the right state of mind through which one can enhance the realization of emptiness and the true nature of the mind. This includes the states of mind which are equivalent to the nine meditative absorptions (''navasamāpatti'', སྙོམས་འཇུག་དགུ་), including the single-pointed concentration of the desire realm, the five states of the mind in the form realm, and the three states of the formless realm. In Mahāyāna practice, a practitioner does not enter the state of meditation just for the sake of blissful experience or peace but to develop the innate power of the mind to reach enlightenment sooner and to manifest extraordinary powers which can benefit sentient beings.

<h4>Stainless, the Second Stage</h4>
In the Mahāyāna system, the path of practice covers the second through tenth of the ten bodhisattva stages, since the first stage (Supreme Joy) is aligned to the path of seeing. The second stage, Stainless (''vimalā'', དྲི་མ་མེད་པ་), is the first bodhisattva stage which falls within the path of practice. It is called Stainless because the bodhicitta on this level overcomes the impurities or flaws of moral misconduct. As the bodhisattva observes a pure and flawless moral discipline, such as the ten virtues, this stage is associated with exceptional achievement in the perfection of discipline. On this level, the bodhisattva is also said to be able to travel to a thousand buddha realms, see a thousand Buddhas, enter a thousand types of meditative states, etc. Out of the nine stages, this stage is known as the inferior phase of the inferior stage.

<h4>Luminous, the Third Stage</h4>
The third bodhisattva stage is called Luminous (''prabhākarī'', འོད་བྱེད་པ་), as the initial light of pristine wisdom, which dispels the darkness of defiling emotions, starts to appear like the red sky of dawn. On this level, the bodhisattva excels in the practice of patience, as he sees no individual or sentient beings to be upset about. Even if his or her body is being cut into pieces, the bodhisattva sees no being whose body is cut or who is cutting it. The bodhisattva not only overcomes the darkness of his or her own ignorance but also goes on to dispel the darkness of ignorance for other sentient beings. This stage is known as the middling phase of the inferior stage. The bodhisattva can visit a hundred thousand realms of buddhas, engage in a hundred thousand types of meditative states, etc.

<h4>Radiant, the Fourth Stage</h4>
By the fourth stage of the bodhisattva, the light of pristine wisdom, which dispels the darkness of the defiling emotions and the impurities which obscure full enlightenment, shines radiantly, thus giving it the name Radiant (''arciṣmatī'', འོད་འཕྲོ་བ་). The bodhisattva on this level excels in the perfection of effort, which is the fuel that enables one to carry out various bodhisattva practices. Effort, described as zeal in virtuous things, is considered to be the root of all good qualities and outcomes. The bodhisattva on this level engages tirelessly without any fatigue or slack in a wide range of activities to benefit sentient beings. He/she has overcome the problem of laziness, diffidence, and lethargy and can reach tens of millions of buddha realms, see the many buddhas in these realms, enter tens of millions of meditative states, etc. This stage is considered the superior phase of the inferior stage.

<h4>Formidable, the Fifth Stage</h4>
When a bodhisattva reaches the fifth stage, he or she is a formidable force who even the powerful evil forces and obstacles cannot challenge. Thus, the stage is called Formidable or difficult to overcome (''sudurjaya'', སྦྱང་དཀའ་བ་). On this level, the bodhisattva fully overcomes the problem of distraction—either through outward occupation of the mind or inward torpor—and excels in meditative stabilization. As a result, he/she can enter into tens of millions of meditative states simultaneously and, while being immersed in meditative absorption, still work for the welfare of sentient beings with great vigor. This is the inferior phase of the middling stage of the path of practice.

<h4>Approaching, the Sixth Stage</h4>
The sixth stage of the ten bodhisattva stages is called Approaching (''abhimukhī'', མངོན་དུ་ཕྱོགས་པ་) because the bodhisattva has the experience of approaching the full enlightenment of the Buddha. On this level, he or she overcomes the main obstacle of ignorance by excelling in the perfection of wisdom. This is the middle phase of the middling stage of the path of practice, and his or her ability to enter into meditative states and see the ultimate nature of reality is very advanced.

<h4>Gone Far, the Seventh Stage</h4>
As he/she excels in the perfection of wisdom, the bodhisattva practitioner sees the nature of both saṃsāra and nirvāṇa and transcends the state of ordinary impure existence. Thus, the seventh stage is called Gone Far (''dūraṅgamā'', རིང་དུ་སོང་བ་), for the bodhisattva has now left saṃsāra far behind. He or she overcomes the problem of not being deficient in skill-in-means and becomes a master of skillful methods. A bodhisattva on this level also surpasses the disciples and solitary realizers in knowledge and insight. This is the superior phase of the middling stage and the last state in which a bodhisattva has an experience of impure ordinary life. Thus, the bodhisattva stages until the seventh are known as the seven impure stages (མ་དག་ས་བདུན་).

<h4>Immovable, the Eighth Stage</h4>
The first pure bodhisattva stage is the eighth stage called Immovable (''acalā'', མི་གཡོ་བ་). It is called Immovable because neither feelings with characteristics nor feelings without characteristics can affect the bodhisattva on this stage. The bodhisattva remains unmoved by any ordinary disposition, thoughts, and tendencies, having transcended ordinary existence and realized the cessation of saṃsāra. Yet, the bodhisattva at this stage attains exceptional power to enter into numerous states of meditation and act for the benefit of sentient beings. In particular, he/she attains the ten powers or masteries (''daśavaśitā'', དབང་བཅུ་), which include control over life span, actions, resources, interests, aspirations, rebirth, mind, miracles, dharma, and pristine wisdom. In doing so, the bodhisattva has no deficiency in spiritual strength because he/she achieves the perfection of strength.

<h4>Good Intelligence, the Ninth Stage</h4>
The ninth stage of the bodhisattva path is called Good Intelligence (''sādhumatī'', ལེགས་པའི་བློ་གྲོས་) because the bodhisattva on this level masters the four forms of outstanding discernments (''catasraḥ pratisaṃvidaḥ'', སོ་སོར་ཡང་དག་པའི་རིག་པ་བཞི་). They include exceptional discernment of doctrines, meanings, linguistic etymologies, and eloquent delivery. This middling phase of the superior stage of the path of practice is also associated with the perfection of aspirations so that a bodhisattva on this level has no obscuration to hinder the fulfillment of his or her prayers and aspirations.

<h4>The Cloud of Dharma, the Tenth Stage</h4>
The final stage of the bodhisattva path is called Cloud of Dharma (''dharmameghā'', ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྤྲིན་) because a bodhisattva on this level has achieved very advanced knowledge and power and can benefit the world spontaneously through showers of Dharma, just like a cloud can bring showers of rain. The buddhas empower and enthrone the bodhisattva on this level as their regent because his or her wisdom, compassion, and power are akin to that of the buddhas, although there is still a vast difference in scale. The bodhisattva on this level has almost fully eradicated even the obscuration of the knowable and can enter into and emerge from countless meditative states spontaneously and also benefit countless sentient beings. At the final moment, the bodhisattva on the tenth stage enters into the "diamond-like meditative stabilization" (''vajropamasamādhi'', རྡོ་རྗེ་ལྟ་བུའི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་), overcomes the most subtle forms of obscurations, and becomes a buddha. The final resultant stage, when a bodhisattva becomes a fully enlightened buddha, is the eleventh stage, called Universal Light (''samantaprabha'', ཀུན་ཏུ་འོད་). This stage is discussed under the Bodhisattva Goal in the next section.
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Explore/The Bodhisattva Path

2026-10-07T10:00:17Z

KPhuntsho:

{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|subclass=Key Concepts
|theme=The Path of the Bodhisattva
|featured-books=The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed Enlightenment; Buddhism: One Teacher, Many Traditions (14th Dalai Lama and Chodron 2014); The Jewel Ornament of Liberation (Konchog Gyaltsen); Introduction to the Middle Way
|featured-texts=Madhyamakāvatāra; Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra; Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ; Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstrakārikā; Daśabhūmikasūtra; Daśabhūmika; Dam chos yid bzhin gyi nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan; Lam rim chen mo
|jumbo-image=File:Adrien-tutin-x8xJpClTvR0-unsplash (1).jpg
|jumbo-text=Explore the process of bodhisattva transformation through the five-path journey that spans accumulation, application, seeing, practice, and non-learning. Navigate through ten progressive stages—from Supreme Joy to Cloud of Dharma—where spiritual warriors develop extraordinary powers, transcend ordinary existence, and ultimately achieve perfect enlightenment to benefit all beings.
|main-text=<div class="drop-cap">
'''[[File:The Bodhisattva Path.mp3|thumb|Listen Here! Read by Laura Swan. <small>[[Media:The Bodhisattva Path.mp3|⬇ Download audio file]]</small>|left]]'''<br>
The English word ''path'' in the phrase ''the bodhisattva path'' is a translation of the Sanskrit term ''mārga'' or the Tibetan word ''lam''. These terms in Buddhist soteriology generally refer to the spiritual road or trajectory covering many phases of progression toward a goal. Thus, the bodhisattva path normally refers to the different chapters and stages of spiritual development including the final state of enlightenment. However, sometimes these terms are also used to refer to the actual practices that constitute the way or path to enlightenment. Thus, the ten virtuous actions, four immeasurables, six perfections, etc., are also considered the bodhisattva path. Śāntideva's ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', for instance, mainly discusses the practices that a bodhisattva should adopt, but Candrakīrti's ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' presents both the practices and the different stages of progression, as does Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''.

In this section, following the common nomenclature, the phrase ''bodhisattva path'' shall refer to the course of a bodhisattva's spiritual development and process of enlightenment. It represents the road or journey an individual is supposed to follow. Such a process of or path to enlightenment in most Buddhist traditions is divided into five phases: the path of accumulation (''saṃbhāramārga'', ''ཚོགས་ལམ་''), the path of application (''prayogamārga'', ''སྦྱོར་ལམ་''), the path of seeing (''darśanamārga'', ''མཐོང་ལམ་''), the path of practice (''bhāvanāmārga'', ''སྒོམ་ལམ་''), and the path of non-learning (''aśaikṣamārga'', ''མི་སློབ་ལམ་''). In the lower Buddhist vehicles or schools, the five paths are presented in the framework of the four persons, including a stream enterer (''śrotāpanna'', ''རྒྱུན་ཞུགས་''), once-returner (''sakṛdāgāmin'', ''ལན་གཅིག་ཕྱིར་འོང་''), non-returner (''anāgāmin'', ''ཕྱིར་མི་འོང་''), and foe destroyer (''arhat'', ''དགྲ་བཅོམ་''), who has reached nirvāṇa.

In the case of the Mahāyāna path, which a bodhisattva must follow to reach buddhahood, or the state of perfect enlightenment, the journey is divided into five paths (''pañcamārga'', ''ལམ་ལྔ་''), and the third and fourth paths are aligned to the ten stages (''daśabhūmi'', ''ས་བཅུ་''). The following passages present the five paths, their subphases, and the ten stages and what practices are mainly associated with such levels of progress.

<h3>The Path of Accumulation</h3>

<h4>The inferior path of accumulation</h4>

The first level on the path to enlightenment is called the path of accumulation, as the beginner bodhisattva focuses on accumulating merit and virtues which serve as provisions for the path. A bodhisattva enters this first level of the bodhisattva path when he or she gives rise to a genuine thought of awakening, or ''bodhicitta''. This path has three levels called the inferior, middling, and superior path of accumulation.

On the first level of the inferior path of accumulation, a practitioner focuses on the practice of the four points of mindfulness (''catvāri smṛtyūpasthānā'', ''དྲན་པ་ཉེ་བར་བཞག་པ་བཞི་''): the mindfulness of the body, sensation, mind, and phenomena. Patrul Rinpoche, following Asaṅga's ''Compendium of Direct Knowledge'', also adds that a practitioner must have discipline for practice, interest to practice, and the curiosity to learn.

<h4>The middle path of accumulation</h4>
On this level, a practitioner continues to have the discipline and interest and also meditates on the four points of mindfulness. However, the practitioner must put forth more effort, and such effort is presented through four points of primary efforts (''caturṇāṃ samyakprahāṇānām'', ''ཡང་དག་པར་སྤོང་བ་བཞི་''). They are:
#Stopping negative things which have not arisen from arising
#Abandoning negatives things which have arisen
#Cultivating positive things which have not arisen
#Enhancing positive things which have arisen

<h4>The superior path of accumulation</h4>
The superior path of accumulation is the last phase of the path of accumulation. On this stage, the focus is on meditation and developing concentration. A bodhisattva develops the four spiritual legs of meditation which can lead to magical powers and the ability to perform miracles. These four points, known as the four legs of magical powers (''catvāra ṛddhipādā'', ''རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་བཞི་''), are:

#The leg of magical power of intention (''chanda ṛddhipāda'', ''འདུན་པ་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་'')
#The leg of magical power of effort (''virya ṛddhipāda'', ''བརྩོན་འགྲུས་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་'')
#The leg of magical power of thought (''citta ṛddhipāda'', ''བསམ་པ་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་'')
#The leg of magical power of examination (''mīmaṃsā ṛddhipāda'', ''དཔྱོད་པ་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་'')

The four legs refer to the four facets or components of meditation that lead to supernatural power. Intention or aspiration is the willpower to engage in meditation, and this is followed by effort or diligence, which is crucial for persisting in the practice. Only through diligence can one reach the point of single-pointed concentration, which is the third leg, thought. The fourth leg of examination refers to the state of meditation in which one is free from major problems of distraction and mental sinking and can discern the subtle features or properties of the object of meditation. It is a stage where one transcends a rough focus and where the mind sharpens and easily focuses on the object. Given such meditative concentration, a bodhisattva can attain magical powers such as clairvoyance and the ability to travel to buddha realms. More importantly, the bodhisattva can enter the meditative state called "the stream of Dharma" (''srotānugatasamādhi'', ''ཆོས་རྒྱུན་གྱི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་''), which helps the bodhisattva retain an enormous amount of teachings in their memory.

<h3>The Path of Application</h3>
The path of application covers the last phase of ordinary existence after having developed significant spiritual powers of discipline, meditation, and wisdom. On this level, a bodhisattva practitioner attains one of the six states of concentration which is considered highly pliable and conducive for practice. Patrul Rinpoche explains that this level is called the path of application or engagement, as the practitioner applies himself or herself to the practice leading to the non-conceptual pristine wisdom, which directly discerns the true nature of things. This level is divided into four sublevels of heat, peak, patience, and supreme worldly Dharma, each with its own special marks of spiritual development.

<h4>The Level of Heat</h4>
The most important bodhisattva practice is the cultivation of pristine wisdom, which discerns the true nature of all phenomena. Such pristine wisdom or the direct non-conceptual experience of truth is compared to fire, as it illuminates reality and burns misconceptions. However, such pristine wisdom is attained only on the path of seeing. At the beginning of the path of application, a bodhisattva practitioner only starts to feel the heat of such a wisdom fire, signaling the approaching fire. Thus, this level is called heat. Nonetheless, a bodhisattva practitioner on this level starts to have a profound experience, if not direct cognition, of truth. Patrul Rinpoche explains that if one were rubbing sticks to create fire, before the flame starts, one feels the heat. Similarly, on this level, one feels the heat preceding the flame. In another example, if the direct experience of the ultimate truth were like seeing the sun, here the practitioner sees the first sign of light. However, on this level and the level of Peak, there is no certainty about when the direct experience will occur. The practices on this level and the next level are the five powers of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom.

<h4>The Level of Peak</h4>
This level is called Peak, as it is the best or peak of worldly virtuous actions. The practitioner continues to practice the five powers. The power of faith refers to the strong faith in the realization of truth and the desire to actualize it, and the power of effort is the persistence in practice to bring about the realization. The power of mindfulness concerns the practice of discipline, the power of concentration concerns the practice of meditation, and the power of wisdom concerns the practice of wisdom. These three are what are known as the three higher trainings and cover the entire spectrum of Buddhist practice.

On the level of Heat, the practitioner obtains the luminous experience, like the light at dawn. But on the level of Peak, the practitioner can expand and multiply such experience. Thus, Heat is associated with the meditative state of attaining light (''ālokalabdhasamādhi'', ''སྣང་བ་ཐོབ་པའི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་''), and Peak is associated with the meditative state of spreading light (''ālokavṛddhisamādhi'', ''སྣང་བ་འཆེད་པའི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་'').

On the level of Heat, a practitioner investigates the nature of desire and attachment to external worldly objects, realizes the lack of real existence in extroverted thoughts, and realizes the reflexive nature of luminous awareness. The practitioner on the level of Heat abandons attachment to the objects belonging to the realm of ordinary existence. When the practitioner attains the level of Peak, he or she realizes the lack of real existence even in matters associated with nirvāṇa or enlightenment. Thus, the practitioner abandons grasping at extroverted thoughts of enlightenment.

<h4>The Level of Patience</h4>
The third stage on the path of application is the level of Patience. It is called Patience because a practitioner is no longer unsettled by the experience of reality and has developed the ability or patience to fathom the true nature of reality. Once on this level, it is said that the practitioner will never fall to the lower realms of rebirth. Thus, a bodhisattva is assured of a happy rebirth. His or her powers of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom are also much stronger and they are now called the five strengths (''pañcabala'', ''སྟོབས་ལྔ་''). Here, practitioners have the ability to vanquish and crush the afflictive emotions.

<h4>The Level of Supreme Worldly Dharma</h4>
A bodhisattva continues to cultivate the five strengths, and in the final stages of the path of application, almost gets a vivid experience of the true nature of reality. The true nature of reality in the Buddhist context refers to the way things are or to objective truth, such as the impermanent nature of conditioned things, the dissatisfactory nature of all defiled entities, the nonexistence of the self or person, and the emptiness of inherent existence. On this level, a practitioner nearly has an explicit, nonconceptual experience of truth, although it is not yet a direct perception. Because it is the highest point of an ordinary existence before the practitioner becomes a sublime being, this level is called Supreme Worldly Dharma, or "Peak of Worldly Dharma" (འཇིག་རྟེན་པའི་ཆོས་ཀྱི་མཆོག་).

<h3>The Path of Seeing (མཐོང་ལམ་, ''Tonglam'')</h3>
The path of seeing is the first stage of a sublime being (''ārya'', ''འཕགས་པ་''), and it is aligned with the first stage of the ten bodhisattva stages (''daśabodhisattvabhūmi'', ''བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་ས་བཅུ་''). After persistent cultivation of the insight into the nature of reality, a practitioner eventually gains a direct experience or bare, nonconceptual realization of the true nature of things. His or her understanding of the truth becomes a direct perception and experience of the truth. Such a level of realization marks the path of seeing and the attainment of the state of a sublime being.

In general, the truth that a practitioner directly experiences includes the four noble truths and their associated characteristics, such as impermanence, suffering, nonself, etc. According to Mipham Gyatso, when a practitioner sees the true nature of suffering associated with the desire realm, such an insight or realization is called patience for knowing reality (''dharmajñānakṣānti'', ''ཆོས་ཤེས་པའི་བཟོད་པ་''). This is also the antidotal knowledge known as the uninterrupted path (''ānantaryamārga'', ''བར་ཆད་མེད་ལམ་'') which leads to freedom from the associated shackles. The awareness that one has seen the true nature of suffering associated with the desire realm is known as awareness of the truth (''dharmajñāna'', ''ཆོས་ཤེས་པ་''). This aspect of being free from defilements which obscure the true nature of suffering is also known as the path of liberation (''vimuktimārga'', ''རྣམ་གྲོལ་ལམ་'').

When a practitioner realizes the true nature of suffering associated with the upper (form and formless) realms, such a realization is called subsequent patience (''anvayakṣānti'', ''རྗེས་སུ་བཟོད་པ་'') for knowing reality. The awareness that one has seen the true nature of suffering associated with the upper realms is known as the subsequent awareness (''anvayajñāna'', ''རྗེས་སུ་ཤེས་པ་'') of the truth. The patience for knowing the reality of the upper realm is the uninterrupted path, and the freedom from defilements which obscures such reality is the path of liberation. When one applies this to the three other noble truths of the causes of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering, we get a total of sixteen aspects or phases. Some claim that these are sixteen moments occurring in a sequence, while others argue these are aspects arising simultaneously.

In the context of the Mahāyāna path, the bodhisattva path of seeing is not normally presented through these sixteen moments. A bodhisattva on the path of seeing is said to be singularly immersed in the nonconceptual and nondual experience of emptiness, the ultimate nature of all phenomena. Because the bodhisattva immersed in such a deep state of realization is said to experience great bliss, this level on the bodhisattva path is also known as Supreme Joy (''pramuditā'', ''རབ་ཏུ་དགའ་བ་''). On the path of seeing, a bodhisattva excels in the practice of giving, as he/she has come to see the emptiness of all things and is willing to give away everything. In the post-meditation phase, a bodhisattva is said to be able to give parts of one's own body with joy, visit a hundred buddha realms, have visions of a hundred buddhas, move a hundred worlds, live a hundred eons, etc.

The path of seeing is primarily associated with the practice of discriminating wisdom, which is the wisdom that can directly perceive the true nature of all phenomena. Along with discriminating wisdom, a practitioner also undertakes other limbs of enlightenment, which include mindfulness, effort, joy, agility, concentration, and equanimity. Mindfulness maintains constant awareness of the true nature of things, effort or zeal makes the practitioner engage in truth happily, joy makes the practitioner rejoice in the realization, agility make him/her engage in it with nimbleness, concentration avoids distraction from experiencing the truth, and equanimity helps have neither attachment nor aversion to the experience of truth. The practice of these seven limbs of enlightenment are highlighted as practices on the path of seeing, although they are practiced throughout the entire bodhisattva path.

<h3>The Path of Practice</h3>
Having directly experienced the true nature of things on the path of seeing, a bodhisattva must continue the practices in order to perfect them. The path of practice, which spans from the second until the tenth of bodhisattva stages, is the fourth out of the five paths. The main set of practices associated with this phase of bodhisattva spiritual evolution is the eightfold path of the sublime beings (''āryāṣṭāṅgamārga'', ''འཕགས་པའི་ལམ་ཡན་ལག་བརྒྱད་''). This set is common to all Buddhist traditions and often appears alongside the four noble truths as teachings delivered by the Buddha in his first sermon in Deer Park. They are the right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditative concentration.

Right view, in the context of the Mahāyāna path, refers to the insight of the ultimate nature of things, particularly to the nonconceptual pristine wisdom which realizes the nature of emptiness from all elaborations. Right intention is virtuous thought which is not contaminated by defiling emotions but inspired by compassion, and right speech includes words and forms of communication which are beneficial and free from negative elements. In his ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', Śāntideva describes right speech as having eight characteristics.
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Right action is any deed or action which is morally righteous and benevolent by nature. Mahāyāna ethics focuses on altruistic actions motivated by compassion and concern for the greater good of sentient beings. Thus, an action motivated by bodhicitta is often the highest form of positive action. Right livelihood refers to an ethical way of life and source of living which is free from the pursuit of worldly desire. Eschewing sources of living which cause harm to others, right livelihood is informed by a sense of contentment for oneself and a relentless zeal to benefit others. Such indomitable and unwavering enthusiasm and diligence to benefit sentient beings constitute right effort.

To engage in the bodhisattva practices with carefulness, introspection, and conscientiousness and to be aware of the needs of other beings and of the true nature of phenomena is right mindfulness. Finally, right meditative concentration is the right state of mind through which one can enhance the realization of emptiness and the true nature of the mind. This includes the states of mind which are equivalent to the nine meditative absorptions (''navasamāpatti'', ''སྙོམས་འཇུག་དགུ་''), including the single-pointed concentration of the desire realm, the five states of the mind in the form realm, and the three states of the formless realm. In Mahāyāna practice, a practitioner does not enter the state of meditation just for the sake of blissful experience or peace but to develop the innate power of the mind to reach enlightenment sooner and to manifest extraordinary powers which can benefit sentient beings.

<h4>Stainless, the Second Stage</h4>
In the Mahāyāna system, the path of practice covers the second through tenth of the ten bodhisattva stages, since the first stage (Supreme Joy) is aligned to the path of seeing. The second stage, Stainless (''vimalā'', ''དྲི་མ་མེད་པ་''), is the first bodhisattva stage which falls within the path of practice. It is called Stainless because the bodhicitta on this level overcomes the impurities or flaws of moral misconduct. As the bodhisattva observes a pure and flawless moral discipline, such as the ten virtues, this stage is associated with exceptional achievement in the perfection of discipline. On this level, the bodhisattva is also said to be able to travel to a thousand buddha realms, see a thousand Buddhas, enter a thousand types of meditative states, etc. Out of the nine stages, this stage is known as the inferior phase of the inferior stage.

<h4>Luminous, the Third Stage</h4>
The third bodhisattva stage is called Luminous (''prabhākarī'', ''འོད་བྱེད་པ་''), as the initial light of pristine wisdom, which dispels the darkness of defiling emotions, starts to appear like the red sky of dawn. On this level, the bodhisattva excels in the practice of patience, as he sees no individual or sentient beings to be upset about. Even if his or her body is being cut into pieces, the bodhisattva sees no being whose body is cut or who is cutting it. The bodhisattva not only overcomes the darkness of his or her own ignorance but also goes on to dispel the darkness of ignorance for other sentient beings. This stage is known as the middling phase of the inferior stage. The bodhisattva can visit a hundred thousand realms of buddhas, engage in a hundred thousand types of meditative states, etc.

<h4>Radiant, the Fourth Stage</h4>
By the fourth stage of the bodhisattva, the light of pristine wisdom, which dispels the darkness of the defiling emotions and the impurities which obscure full enlightenment, shines radiantly, thus giving it the name Radiant (''arciṣmatī'', ''<i>'</i>འོད་འཕྲོ་བ་''). The bodhisattva on this level excels in the perfection of effort, which is the fuel that enables one to carry out various bodhisattva practices. Effort, described as zeal in virtuous things, is considered to be the root of all good qualities and outcomes. The bodhisattva on this level engages tirelessly without any fatigue or slack in a wide range of activities to benefit sentient beings. He/she has overcome the problem of laziness, diffidence, and lethargy and can reach tens of millions of buddha realms, see the many buddhas in these realms, enter tens of millions of meditative states, etc. This stage is considered the superior phase of the inferior stage.

<h4>Formidable, the Fifth Stage</h4>
When a bodhisattva reaches the fifth stage, he or she is a formidable force who even the powerful evil forces and obstacles cannot challenge. Thus, the stage is called Formidable or difficult to overcome (''sudurjaya'', ''སྦྱང་དཀའ་བ་''). On this level, the bodhisattva fully overcomes the problem of distraction—either through outward occupation of the mind or inward torpor—and excels in meditative stabilization. As a result, he/she can enter into tens of millions of meditative states simultaneously and, while being immersed in meditative absorption, still work for the welfare of sentient beings with great vigor. This is the inferior phase of the middling stage of the path of practice.

<h4>Approaching, the Sixth Stage</h4>
The sixth stage of the ten bodhisattva stages is called Approaching (''abhimukhī'', ''མངོན་དུ་ཕྱོགས་པ་'') because the bodhisattva has the experience of approaching the full enlightenment of the Buddha. On this level, he or she overcomes the main obstacle of ignorance by excelling in the perfection of wisdom. This is the middle phase of the middling stage of the path of practice, and his or her ability to enter into meditative states and see the ultimate nature of reality is very advanced.

<h4>Gone Far, the Seventh Stage</h4>
As he/she excels in the perfection of wisdom, the bodhisattva practitioner sees the nature of both saṃsāra and nirvāṇa and transcends the state of ordinary impure existence. Thus, the seventh stage is called Gone Far (''dūraṅgamā'', ''རིང་དུ་སོང་བ་''), for the bodhisattva has now left saṃsāra far behind. He or she overcomes the problem of not being deficient in skill-in-means and becomes a master of skillful methods. A bodhisattva on this level also surpasses the disciples and solitary realizers in knowledge and insight. This is the superior phase of the middling stage and the last state in which a bodhisattva has an experience of impure ordinary life. Thus, the bodhisattva stages until the seventh are known as the seven impure stages (''མ་དག་ས་བདུན་'').

<h4>Immovable, the Eighth Stage</h4>
The first pure bodhisattva stage is the eighth stage called Immovable (''acalā'', ''མི་གཡོ་བ་''). It is called Immovable because neither feelings with characteristics nor feelings without characteristics can affect the bodhisattva on this stage. The bodhisattva remains unmoved by any ordinary disposition, thoughts, and tendencies, having transcended ordinary existence and realized the cessation of saṃsāra. Yet, the bodhisattva at this stage attains exceptional power to enter into numerous states of meditation and act for the benefit of sentient beings. In particular, he/she attains the ten powers or masteries, which include control over life span, actions, resources, interests, aspirations, rebirth, mind, miracles, dharma, and pristine wisdom. In doing so, the bodhisattva has no deficiency in spiritual strength because he/she achieves the perfection of strength.

<h4>Good Intelligence, the Ninth Stage</h4>
The ninth stage of the bodhisattva path is called Good Intelligence (''sādhumatī'', ''ལེགས་པའི་བློ་གྲོས་'') because the bodhisattva on this level masters the four forms of outstanding discernments (''catasraḥ pratisaṃvidaḥ'', ''so sor yang dag pa'i rig pa bzhi''). They include exceptional discernment of doctrines, meanings, linguistic etymologies, and eloquent delivery. This middling phase of the superior stage of the path of practice is also associated with the perfection of aspirations so that a bodhisattva on this level has no obscuration to hinder the fulfillment of his or her prayers and aspirations.

<h4>The Cloud of Dharma, the Tenth Stage</h4>
The final stage of the bodhisattva path is called Cloud of Dharma (''dharmameghā'', ''ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྤྲིན་'') because a bodhisattva on this level has achieved very advanced knowledge and power and can benefit the world spontaneously through showers of Dharma, just like a cloud can bring showers of rain. The buddhas empower and enthrone the bodhisattva on this level as their regent because his or her wisdom, compassion, and power are akin to that of the buddhas, although there is still a vast difference in scale. The bodhisattva on this level has almost fully eradicated even the obscuration of the knowable and can enter into and emerge from countless meditative states spontaneously and also benefit countless sentient beings. At the final moment, the bodhisattva on the tenth stage enters into the "diamond-like meditative stabilization" (''vajropamasamādhi'', ''རྡོ་རྗེ་ལྟ་བུའི་ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་'')), overcomes the most subtle forms of obscurations, and becomes a buddha. The final resultant stage, when a bodhisattva becomes a fully enlightened buddha, is the eleventh stage, called Universal Light (''samantaprabha'', ''ཀུན་ཏུ་འོད་''). This stage is discussed under the Bodhisattva Goal in the next section.
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Explore/The Bodhisattva Path

2026-10-07T06:37:15Z

KPhuntsho:

{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|subclass=Key Concepts
|theme=The Path of the Bodhisattva
|featured-books=The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed Enlightenment; Buddhism: One Teacher, Many Traditions (14th Dalai Lama and Chodron 2014); The Jewel Ornament of Liberation (Konchog Gyaltsen); Introduction to the Middle Way
|featured-texts=Madhyamakāvatāra; Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra; Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ; Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstrakārikā; Daśabhūmikasūtra; Daśabhūmika; Dam chos yid bzhin gyi nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan; Lam rim chen mo
|jumbo-image=File:Adrien-tutin-x8xJpClTvR0-unsplash (1).jpg
|jumbo-text=Explore the process of bodhisattva transformation through the five-path journey that spans accumulation, application, seeing, practice, and non-learning. Navigate through ten progressive stages—from Supreme Joy to Cloud of Dharma—where spiritual warriors develop extraordinary powers, transcend ordinary existence, and ultimately achieve perfect enlightenment to benefit all beings.
|main-text=<div class="drop-cap">
'''[[File:The Bodhisattva Path.mp3|thumb|Listen Here! Read by Laura Swan. <small>[[Media:The Bodhisattva Path.mp3|⬇ Download audio file]]</small>|left]]'''<br>
The English word ''path'' in the phrase ''the bodhisattva path'' is a translation of the Sanskrit term ''mārga'' or the Tibetan word ''lam''. These terms in Buddhist soteriology generally refer to the spiritual road or trajectory covering many phases of progression toward a goal. Thus, the bodhisattva path normally refers to the different chapters and stages of spiritual development including the final state of enlightenment. However, sometimes these terms are also used to refer to the actual practices that constitute the way or path to enlightenment. Thus, the ten virtuous actions, four immeasurables, six perfections, etc., are also considered the bodhisattva path. Śāntideva's ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', for instance, mainly discusses the practices that a bodhisattva should adopt, but Candrakīrti's ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' presents both the practices and the different stages of progression, as does Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''.

In this section, following the common nomenclature, the phrase ''bodhisattva path'' shall refer to the course of a bodhisattva's spiritual development and process of enlightenment. It represents the road or journey an individual is supposed to follow. Such a process of or path to enlightenment in most Buddhist traditions is divided into five phases: the path of accumulation (''saṃbhāramārga'', ''tshogs lam''), the path of application (''prayogamārga'', ''sbyor lam''), the path of seeing (''darśanamārga'', ''mthong lam''), the path of practice (''bhāvanāmārga'', ''sgom lam''), and the path of non-learning (''aśaikṣamārga'', ''mi slob lam''). In the lower Buddhist vehicles or schools, the five paths are presented in the framework of the four persons, including a stream enterer (''śrotāpanna'', ''rgyun zhugs''), once-returner (''sakṛdāgāmin'', ''lan gcig phyir 'ong''), non-returner (''anāgāmin'', ''phyir mi 'ong''), and foe destroyer (''arhat'', ''dgra bcom''), who has reached nirvāṇa.

In the case of the Mahāyāna path, which a bodhisattva must follow to reach buddhahood, or the state of perfect enlightenment, the journey is divided into five paths (''pañcamārga'', ''lam lnga''), and the third and fourth paths are aligned to the ten stages (''daśabhūmi'', ''sa bcu''). The following passages present the five paths, their subphases, and the ten stages and what practices are mainly associated with such levels of progress.

<h3>The Path of Accumulation</h3>

<h4>The inferior path of accumulation</h4>

The first level on the path to enlightenment is called the path of accumulation, as the beginner bodhisattva focuses on accumulating merit and virtues which serve as provisions for the path. A bodhisattva enters this first level of the bodhisattva path when he or she gives rise to a genuine thought of awakening, or ''bodhicitta''. This path has three levels called the inferior, middling, and superior path of accumulation.

On the first level of the inferior path of accumulation, a practitioner focuses on the practice of the four points of mindfulness (''catvāri smṛtyūpasthānā'', ''dran pa nye bar bzhag pa bzhi''): the mindfulness of the body, sensation, mind, and phenomena. Patrul Rinpoche, following Asaṅga's ''Compendium of Direct Knowledge'', also adds that a practitioner must have discipline for practice, interest to practice, and the curiosity to learn.

<h4>The middle path of accumulation</h4>
On this level, a practitioner continues to have the discipline and interest and also meditates on the four points of mindfulness. However, the practitioner must put forth more effort, and such effort is presented through four points of primary efforts (''caturṇāṃ samyakprahāṇānām'', ''yang dag par spong ba bzhi''). They are:
#Stopping negative things which have not arisen from arising
#Abandoning negatives things which have arisen
#Cultivating positive things which have not arisen
#Enhancing positive things which have arisen

<h4>The superior path of accumulation</h4>
The superior path of accumulation is the last phase of the path of accumulation. On this stage, the focus is on meditation and developing concentration. A bodhisattva develops the four spiritual legs of meditation which can lead to magical powers and the ability to perform miracles. These four points, known as the four legs of magical powers (''catvāra ṛddhipādā'', ''rdzu ’phrul gyi rkang pa bzhi''), are:

#The leg of magical power of intention (''chanda ṛddhipāda'', ''<i>'</i>dun pa rdzu 'phrul gyi rkang pa'')
#The leg of magical power of effort (''virya ṛddhipāda'', ''brtson 'gros rdzu 'phrul gyi rkang pa'')
#The leg of magical power of thought (''citta ṛddhipāda'', ''bsam pa rdzu 'phrul gyi rkang pa'')
#The leg of magical power of examination (''mīmaṃsā ṛddhipāda'', ''dpyod pa rdzu 'phrul gyi rkang pa'')

The four legs refer to the four facets or components of meditation that lead to supernatural power. Intention or aspiration is the willpower to engage in meditation, and this is followed by effort or diligence, which is crucial for persisting in the practice. Only through diligence can one reach the point of single-pointed concentration, which is the third leg, thought. The fourth leg of examination refers to the state of meditation in which one is free from major problems of distraction and mental sinking and can discern the subtle features or properties of the object of meditation. It is a stage where one transcends a rough focus and where the mind sharpens and easily focuses on the object. Given such meditative concentration, a bodhisattva can attain magical powers such as clairvoyance and the ability to travel to buddha realms. More importantly, the bodhisattva can enter the meditative state called "the stream of Dharma" (''srotānugatasamādhi'', ''chos rgyun gyi ting nge 'dzin''), which helps the bodhisattva retain an enormous amount of teachings in their memory.

<h3>The Path of Application</h3>
The path of application covers the last phase of ordinary existence after having developed significant spiritual powers of discipline, meditation, and wisdom. On this level, a bodhisattva practitioner attains one of the six states of concentration which is considered highly pliable and conducive for practice. Patrul Rinpoche explains that this level is called the path of application or engagement, as the practitioner applies himself or herself to the practice leading to the non-conceptual pristine wisdom, which directly discerns the true nature of things. This level is divided into four sublevels of heat, peak, patience, and supreme worldly Dharma, each with its own special marks of spiritual development.

<h4>The Level of Heat</h4>
The most important bodhisattva practice is the cultivation of pristine wisdom, which discerns the true nature of all phenomena. Such pristine wisdom or the direct non-conceptual experience of truth is compared to fire, as it illuminates reality and burns misconceptions. However, such pristine wisdom is attained only on the path of seeing. At the beginning of the path of application, a bodhisattva practitioner only starts to feel the heat of such a wisdom fire, signaling the approaching fire. Thus, this level is called heat. Nonetheless, a bodhisattva practitioner on this level starts to have a profound experience, if not direct cognition, of truth. Patrul Rinpoche explains that if one were rubbing sticks to create fire, before the flame starts, one feels the heat. Similarly, on this level, one feels the heat preceding the flame. In another example, if the direct experience of the ultimate truth were like seeing the sun, here the practitioner sees the first sign of light. However, on this level and the level of Peak, there is no certainty about when the direct experience will occur. The practices on this level and the next level are the five powers of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom.

<h4>The Level of Peak</h4>
This level is called Peak, as it is the best or peak of worldly virtuous actions. The practitioner continues to practice the five powers. The power of faith refers to the strong faith in the realization of truth and the desire to actualize it, and the power of effort is the persistence in practice to bring about the realization. The power of mindfulness concerns the practice of discipline, the power of concentration concerns the practice of meditation, and the power of wisdom concerns the practice of wisdom. These three are what are known as the three higher trainings and cover the entire spectrum of Buddhist practice.

On the level of Heat, the practitioner obtains the luminous experience, like the light at dawn. But on the level of Peak, the practitioner can expand and multiply such experience. Thus, Heat is associated with the meditative state of attaining light (''ālokalabdhasamādhi'', ''snang ba thob pa'i ting nge 'dzin''), and Peak is associated with the meditative state of spreading light (''ālokavṛddhisamādhi'', ''snang ba mched pa'i ting nge 'dzin'').

On the level of Heat, a practitioner investigates the nature of desire and attachment to external worldly objects, realizes the lack of real existence in extroverted thoughts, and realizes the reflexive nature of luminous awareness. The practitioner on the level of Heat abandons attachment to the objects belonging to the realm of ordinary existence. When the practitioner attains the level of Peak, he or she realizes the lack of real existence even in matters associated with nirvāṇa or enlightenment. Thus, the practitioner abandons grasping at extroverted thoughts of enlightenment.

<h4>The Level of Patience</h4>
The third stage on the path of application is the level of Patience. It is called Patience because a practitioner is no longer unsettled by the experience of reality and has developed the ability or patience to fathom the true nature of reality. Once on this level, it is said that the practitioner will never fall to the lower realms of rebirth. Thus, a bodhisattva is assured of a happy rebirth. His or her powers of faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom are also much stronger and they are now called the five strengths (''pañcabala'', ''stobs lnga''). Here, practitioners have the ability to vanquish and crush the afflictive emotions.

<h4>The Level of Supreme Worldly Dharma</h4>
A bodhisattva continues to cultivate the five strengths, and in the final stages of the path of application, almost gets a vivid experience of the true nature of reality. The true nature of reality in the Buddhist context refers to the way things are or to objective truth, such as the impermanent nature of conditioned things, the dissatisfactory nature of all defiled entities, the nonexistence of the self or person, and the emptiness of inherent existence. On this level, a practitioner nearly has an explicit, nonconceptual experience of truth, although it is not yet a direct perception. Because it is the highest point of an ordinary existence before the practitioner becomes a sublime being, this level is called Supreme Worldly Dharma, or "Peak of Worldly Dharma" (འཇིག་རྟེན་པའི་ཆོས་ཀྱི་མཆོག, 'jig rten pa'i chos kyi mchog).

<h3>The Path of Seeing (མཐོང་ལམ་, ''Tonglam'')</h3>
The path of seeing is the first stage of a sublime being (''ārya'', ''<i>'</i>phags pa''), and it is aligned with the first stage of the ten bodhisattva stages (''daśabodhisattvabhūmi''s, ''byang chub sems dpa'i sa''). After persistent cultivation of the insight into the nature of reality, a practitioner eventually gains a direct experience or bare, nonconceptual realization of the true nature of things. His or her understanding of the truth becomes a direct perception and experience of the truth. Such a level of realization marks the path of seeing and the attainment of the state of a sublime being.

In general, the truth that a practitioner directly experiences includes the four noble truths and their associated characteristics, such as impermanence, suffering, nonself, etc. According to Mipham Gyatso, when a practitioner sees the true nature of suffering associated with the desire realm, such an insight or realization is called patience for knowing reality (''dharmajñānakṣānti'', ''chos shes pa'i bzod pa''). This is also the antidotal knowledge known as the uninterrupted path (''ānantaryamārga'', ''bar ched med lam'') which leads to freedom from the associated shackles. The awareness that one has seen the true nature of suffering associated with the desire realm is known as awareness of the truth (''dharmajñāna'', ''chos shes pa''). This aspect of being free from defilements which obscure the true nature of suffering is also known as the path of liberation (''vimuktimārga'', ''rnam grol lam'').

When a practitioner realizes the true nature of suffering associated with the upper (form and formless) realms, such a realization is called subsequent patience (''anvayakṣānti'', ''rjes su bzod pa'') for knowing reality. The awareness that one has seen the true nature of suffering associated with the upper realms is known as the subsequent awareness (''anvayakṣānti'', ''rjes su shes pa'') of the truth. The patience for knowing the reality of the upper realm is the uninterrupted path, and the freedom from defilements which obscures such reality is the path of liberation. When one applies this to the three other noble truths of the causes of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering, we get a total of sixteen aspects or phases. Some claim that these are sixteen moments occurring in a sequence, while others argue these are aspects arising simultaneously.

In the context of the Mahāyāna path, the bodhisattva path of seeing is not normally presented through these sixteen moments. A bodhisattva on the path of seeing is said to be singularly immersed in the nonconceptual and nondual experience of emptiness, the ultimate nature of all phenomena. Because the bodhisattva immersed in such a deep state of realization is said to experience great bliss, this level on the bodhisattva path is also known as Supreme Joy (''pramuditā'', ''rab tu dga' ba''). On the path of seeing, a bodhisattva excels in the practice of giving, as he/she has come to see the emptiness of all things and is willing to give away everything. In the post-meditation phase, a bodhisattva is said to be able to give parts of one's own body with joy, visit a hundred buddha realms, have visions of a hundred buddhas, move a hundred worlds, live a hundred eons, etc.

The path of seeing is primarily associated with the practice of discriminating wisdom, which is the wisdom that can directly perceive the true nature of all phenomena. Along with discriminating wisdom, a practitioner also undertakes other limbs of enlightenment, which include mindfulness, effort, joy, agility, concentration, and equanimity. Mindfulness maintains constant awareness of the true nature of things, effort or zeal makes the practitioner engage in truth happily, joy makes the practitioner rejoice in the realization, agility make him/her engage in it with nimbleness, concentration avoids distraction from experiencing the truth, and equanimity helps have neither attachment nor aversion to the experience of truth. The practice of these seven limbs of enlightenment are highlighted as practices on the path of seeing, although they are practiced throughout the entire bodhisattva path.

<h3>The Path of Practice</h3>
Having directly experienced the true nature of things on the path of seeing, a bodhisattva must continue the practices in order to perfect them. The path of practice, which spans from the second until the tenth of bodhisattva stages, is the fourth out of the five paths. The main set of practices associated with this phase of bodhisattva spiritual evolution is the eightfold path of the sublime beings (''āryāṣṭāṅgamārga'', ''<i>'</i>phags pa'i lam yan lag brgyad''). This set is common to all Buddhist traditions and often appears alongside the four noble truths as teachings delivered by the Buddha in his first sermon in Deer Park. They are the right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditative concentration.

Right view, in the context of the Mahāyāna path, refers to the insight of the ultimate nature of things, particularly to the nonconceptual pristine wisdom which realizes the nature of emptiness from all elaborations. Right intention is virtuous thought which is not contaminated by defiling emotions but inspired by compassion, and right speech includes words and forms of communication which are beneficial and free from negative elements. In his ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', Śāntideva describes right speech as having eight characteristics.
{{PullBcaVerses|5.79}}
Right action is any deed or action which is morally righteous and benevolent by nature. Mahāyāna ethics focuses on altruistic actions motivated by compassion and concern for the greater good of sentient beings. Thus, an action motivated by bodhicitta is often the highest form of positive action. Right livelihood refers to an ethical way of life and source of living which is free from the pursuit of worldly desire. Eschewing sources of living which cause harm to others, right livelihood is informed by a sense of contentment for oneself and a relentless zeal to benefit others. Such indomitable and unwavering enthusiasm and diligence to benefit sentient beings constitute right effort.

To engage in the bodhisattva practices with carefulness, introspection, and conscientiousness and to be aware of the needs of other beings and of the true nature of phenomena is right mindfulness. Finally, right meditative concentration is the right state of mind through which one can enhance the realization of emptiness and the true nature of the mind. This includes the states of mind which are equivalent to the nine meditative absorptions (''navasamāpatti'', ''snyoms 'jug dgu''), including the single-pointed concentration of the desire realm, the five states of the mind in the form realm, and the three states of the formless realm. In Mahāyāna practice, a practitioner does not enter the state of meditation just for the sake of blissful experience or peace but to develop the innate power of the mind to reach enlightenment sooner and to manifest extraordinary powers which can benefit sentient beings.

<h4>Stainless, the Second Stage</h4>
In the Mahāyāna system, the path of practice covers the second through tenth of the ten bodhisattva stages, since the first stage (Supreme Joy) is aligned to the path of seeing. The second stage, Stainless (''vimalā'', ''dri ma med pa''), is the first bodhisattva stage which falls within the path of practice. It is called Stainless because the bodhicitta on this level overcomes the impurities or flaws of moral misconduct. As the bodhisattva observes a pure and flawless moral discipline, such as the ten virtues, this stage is associated with exceptional achievement in the perfection of discipline. On this level, the bodhisattva is also said to be able to travel to a thousand buddha realms, see a thousand Buddhas, enter a thousand types of meditative states, etc. Out of the nine stages, this stage is known as the inferior phase of the inferior stage.

<h4>Luminous, the Third Stage</h4>
The third bodhisattva stage is called Luminous (''prabhākarī'', ''<i>'</i>od byed pa''), as the initial light of pristine wisdom, which dispels the darkness of defiling emotions, starts to appear like the red sky of dawn. On this level, the bodhisattva excels in the practice of patience, as he sees no individual or sentient beings to be upset about. Even if his or her body is being cut into pieces, the bodhisattva sees no being whose body is cut or who is cutting it. The bodhisattva not only overcomes the darkness of his or her own ignorance but also goes on to dispel the darkness of ignorance for other sentient beings. This stage is known as the middling phase of the inferior stage. The bodhisattva can visit a hundred thousand realms of buddhas, engage in a hundred thousand types of meditative states, etc.

<h4>Radiant, the Fourth Stage</h4>
By the fourth stage of the bodhisattva, the light of pristine wisdom, which dispels the darkness of the defiling emotions and the impurities which obscure full enlightenment, shines radiantly, thus giving it the name Radiant (''arciṣmatī'', ''<i>'</i>od 'phro ba''). The bodhisattva on this level excels in the perfection of effort, which is the fuel that enables one to carry out various bodhisattva practices. Effort, described as zeal in virtuous things, is considered to be the root of all good qualities and outcomes. The bodhisattva on this level engages tirelessly without any fatigue or slack in a wide range of activities to benefit sentient beings. He/she has overcome the problem of laziness, diffidence, and lethargy and can reach tens of millions of buddha realms, see the many buddhas in these realms, enter tens of millions of meditative states, etc. This stage is considered the superior phase of the inferior stage.

<h4>Formidable, the Fifth Stage</h4>
When a bodhisattva reaches the fifth stage, he or she is a formidable force who even the powerful evil forces and obstacles cannot challenge. Thus, the stage is called Formidable or difficult to overcome (''sudurjaya'', ''sbyangs dka' ba''). On this level, the bodhisattva fully overcomes the problem of distraction—either through outward occupation of the mind or inward torpor—and excels in meditative stabilization. As a result, he/she can enter into tens of millions of meditative states simultaneously and, while being immersed in meditative absorption, still work for the welfare of sentient beings with great vigor. This is the inferior phase of the middling stage of the path of practice.

<h4>Approaching, the Sixth Stage</h4>
The sixth stage of the ten bodhisattva stages is called Approaching (''abhimukhī'', ''mngon du phyogs pa'') because the bodhisattva has the experience of approaching the full enlightenment of the Buddha. On this level, he or she overcomes the main obstacle of ignorance by excelling in the perfection of wisdom. This is the middle phase of the middling stage of the path of practice, and his or her ability to enter into meditative states and see the ultimate nature of reality is very advanced.

<h4>Gone Far, the Seventh Stage</h4>
As he/she excels in the perfection of wisdom, the bodhisattva practitioner sees the nature of both saṃsāra and nirvāṇa and transcends the state of ordinary impure existence. Thus, the seventh stage is called Gone Far (''dūraṅgamā'', ''ring du song ba''), for the bodhisattva has now left saṃsāra far behind. He or she overcomes the problem of not being deficient in skill-in-means and becomes a master of skillful methods. A bodhisattva on this level also surpasses the disciples and solitary realizers in knowledge and insight. This is the superior phase of the middling stage and the last state in which a bodhisattva has an experience of impure ordinary life. Thus, the bodhisattva stages until the seventh are known as the seven impure stages (''ma dag sa bdun'').

<h4>Immovable, the Eighth Stage</h4>
The first pure bodhisattva stage is the eighth stage called Immovable (''acalā'', ''mi g.yo ba''). It is called Immovable because neither feelings with characteristics nor feelings without characteristics can affect the bodhisattva on this stage. The bodhisattva remains unmoved by any ordinary disposition, thoughts, and tendencies, having transcended ordinary existence and realized the cessation of saṃsāra. Yet, the bodhisattva at this stage attains exceptional power to enter into numerous states of meditation and act for the benefit of sentient beings. In particular, he/she attains the ten powers or masteries, which include control over life span, actions, resources, interests, aspirations, rebirth, mind, miracles, dharma, and pristine wisdom. In doing so, the bodhisattva has no deficiency in spiritual strength because he/she achieves the perfection of strength.

<h4>Good Intelligence, the Ninth Stage</h4>
The ninth stage of the bodhisattva path is called Good Intelligence (''sādhumatī'', ''legs pa'i blo gros'') because the bodhisattva on this level masters the four forms of outstanding discernments (''catasraḥ pratisaṃvidaḥ'', ''so sor yang dag pa'i rig pa bzhi''). They include exceptional discernment of doctrines, meanings, linguistic etymologies, and eloquent delivery. This middling phase of the superior stage of the path of practice is also associated with the perfection of aspirations so that a bodhisattva on this level has no obscuration to hinder the fulfillment of his or her prayers and aspirations.

<h4>The Cloud of Dharma, the Tenth Stage</h4>
The final stage of the bodhisattva path is called Cloud of Dharma (''dharmameghā'', ''chos kyi sprin'') because a bodhisattva on this level has achieved very advanced knowledge and power and can benefit the world spontaneously through showers of Dharma, just like a cloud can bring showers of rain. The buddhas empower and enthrone the bodhisattva on this level as their regent because his or her wisdom, compassion, and power are akin to that of the buddhas, although there is still a vast difference in scale. The bodhisattva on this level has almost fully eradicated even the obscuration of the knowable and can enter into and emerge from countless meditative states spontaneously and also benefit countless sentient beings. At the final moment, the bodhisattva on the tenth stage enters into the "diamond-like meditative stabilization" (''vajropamasamādhi''), overcomes the most subtle forms of obscurations, and becomes a buddha. The final resultant stage, when a bodhisattva becomes a fully enlightened buddha, is the eleventh stage, called Universal Light (''samantaprabha'', ''kun tu 'od''). This stage is discussed under the Bodhisattva Goal in the next section.
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Practice/Bodhicitta in Practice

2026-10-06T07:21:52Z

KPhuntsho:

{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|sub-theme=Bodhicitta in Practice
|watermark=Practice
|TermTopics=Debate; Compassion; Arousing Bodhicitta; Protecting Bodhicitta; Increasing Bodhicitta; Six Perfections; Tonglen; Aspirational Bodhicitta; Active Bodhicitta; Equanimity; Equalizing and Exchanging Self and Others; Seven-Point Instructions of Cause and Effect; Four Immeasurables
|main-text={{Jumbo
|full-width=yes
|image=File:TKP-Pawo-Print-6TKP10751.web .jpg
|imageposition=70% 50%
|text=Bodhicitta—the altruistic intention to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all beings—is essential in Mahāyāna Buddhist practice. It is regarded as the defining motivation that transforms any spiritual activity into a genuine Mahāyāna path. Without bodhicitta, progress toward buddhahood is considered impossible. Cultivating bodhicitta involves reflection, meditation, ethical conduct, and guidance from qualified teachers, and is formalized through the bodhisattva vow. Its continual practice is seen as the foundation and driving force for all Mahāyāna spiritual development.
}}
<h2>[[The Bodhicitta Prayer]]</h2>
<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་རིན་པོ་ཆེ། །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">May the sublime and precious bodhicitta</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">མ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས་སྐྱེས་གྱུར་ཅིག །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">Arise in those in whom it has not arisen.</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">སྐྱེས་པ་ཉམས་པ་མེད་པར་ཡང་། །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">Where it has arisen, may it never decline</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">གོང་ནས་གོང་དུ་འཕེལ་བར་ཤོག །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">But grow and flourish more and more.</div>

<h2>Introduction</h2>

The application of bodhicitta in practice is central to the Mahāyāna pursuit of full enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. According to Mahāyāna masters, bodhicitta is a prerequisite for a practice or path to qualify as a Mahāyāna path leading to the state of a fully awakened buddha. Only when the practice is motivated or informed by bodhicitta (བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་རྩིས་ཟིན་པ་) can it be considered as a bona fide part of the Mahāyāna path. Thus, the masters strongly recommend the cultivation of the altruistic thought of bodhicitta before beginning any project or activity. This is because, in the Buddhist system, the moral value of an action is determined by the quality of intention or the state of the mind.

Buddhist masters teach that mind can be in any of these three states:
#A virtuous state with positive thoughts and emotions, such as thirst for knowledge, devotion, compassion, love, etc.
#A nonvirtuous state with negative thoughts and emotions, such as arrogance, hatred, jealousy, etc.
#A neutral state with neither positive nor negative states of mind.

Furthermore, the virtuous mind can be of three types:
#An inferior mind wishing happiness and well-being in this mundane world.
#A middling mind wishing a higher state of lasting happiness, fulfillment, and freedom beyond the ordinary world.
#A superior mind wishing a higher state of lasting happiness for all sentient beings.

This last superior mind is bodhicitta and the one recommended by the Mahāyāna masters before beginning any project or activity.

Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, a twentieth-century teacher of bodhicitta, thus writes in ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta'' (བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་བསྟོད་པ་རིན་ཆེན་སྒྲོན་མ།):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Should one launch something, launch with bodhicitta.
Should one think of something, think of bodhicitta.
Should one analyze something, analyze with bodhicitta.
Should one examine something, examine with bodhicitta. (v. 98)<ref>''brtsam na byang chub sems las brtsam''// ''bsam na byang chub sems nyid bsam''// ''dpyad na byang chub sems su dpyad''// ''brtag na byang chub sems la brtag''//. Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Dga' ldan pho brang, 2018), 29, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8LS66303.</ref>
}}
Patrul Rinpoche, a paragon of bodhicitta practice in nineteenth-century Tibet, also proclaimed in his ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (བསྐལ་མང་གོང་ནས་སོགས།):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood. (v. 6)<ref>''yod na sangs rgyas sgrub la des chog cing''/ /''med na sangs rgyas sgrub la thabs chags pa''/ /''sangs rgyas 'grub pa'i sa bon ma nor ba''/ /''rnam dag byang chub sems mchog bskyed par shog''. See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Bskal mang gong nas sogs'', in Gsung 'bum o rgyan 'jigs med chos kyi dbang po (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 8: 356, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW24829_B101CB.</ref>
}}
In the beginning, a practitioner must cultivate the mind (''cittotpāda'') of awakening through a concerted effort by taking the bodhisattva vow repeatedly, engaging in the various contemplative techniques, receiving teachings on bodhicitta and bodhisattva practices, and utilizing other methods. Gradually, one would become accustomed to thinking of bodhicitta, which would also become stronger and constant. When bodhicitta naturally arises without effort, a person is said to have formally become a bodhisattva. Thus, Jigme Lingpa said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=It is more important to have the supreme mind naturally arise than to consciously cultivate it.<ref>Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod kyi rgya cher 'grel pa bden gnyis shing rta rgyu mtshan nyid kyi theg pa'i skor'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (Gangtok, Sikkim: Sonam T. Kazi, 1970–75), 1: 246b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG10193_E90C9C.</ref>
}}
However, a beginner must make a contrived effort to generate bodhicitta, firstly by cultivating the aspiring bodhicitta and then by engaging in the practice of engaged bodhicitta. Śāntideva presents the distinction between the two in the following verses from his text ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra''):
{{PullBcaVerses|1.15}}
{{PullBcaVerses|1.16}}
One must first have the thought to take all sentient beings to the state of the Buddha just as one must first have the thought to go to Bodh Gaya before one starts the journey. Having generated the strong motivation to take all sentient beings to buddhahood, one must then engage in the actual paths and practices which lead them to the goal. The bodhisattva road consists of a long and arduous practice of the six perfections: giving, discipline, patience, effort, meditation and wisdom. These six topics cover the entire range of practices a person must take up as a bodhisattva to reach buddhahood. They also include the practice of both relative bodhicitta, or the moral mental resolve to take all sentient beings to the state of full awakening, and ultimate bodhicitta, which is the deep understanding and experience of the ultimate nature of all things.

<h2>Generating Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Vow</h2>
A beginner on the Mahāyāna path cultivates the thought of awakening by repeatedly wishing to take all sentient beings as vast as space to the unsurpassed, complete, and perfect state of the Buddha. To formally confirm such desire and express it as a commitment, a beginner undertakes the confirmation of the thought of awakening through a ritual of oath-taking. The first step in the procedure of such a ritual, and in fact in the general Buddhist process of self-transformation, is the reflection on the wonderful physical and psychological conditions one possesses as an able human being.

<h3>Physical Support</h3>
The meditation or reflection on the rarity and preciousness of humanhood is the first topic of meditation in almost all Tibetan Buddhist traditions when one starts a practice or meditation program. One must reflect, from different perspectives, on how humanhood, with its unique freedoms and advantages, is hard to find, and how it is a precious opportunity to seek enlightenment. Human existence offers a powerful combination of rational thinking and emotional capacity, creating ideal conditions to pursue the end of suffering and attain ultimate happiness.

Buddhist texts present the following hypothetical analogy to illustrate this rarity. Suppose a blind turtle lives at the bottom of an ocean and comes to the surface only once every hundred years. Meanwhile, floating on the ocean's surface is a wooden yoke being constantly swayed by the waves. Human birth, it is argued, is rarer than the chance of this turtle, during its brief surface visit, happening to put its neck directly through this floating yoke. Using such examples and many other methods, one is made to see the preciousness of human birth.

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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Khandro Rinpoche: <em>What Is a Precious Human Life?</em>
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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
|id=iQ_NiKurD1c
|caption=Thubten Chonyi: <em>The Four Thoughts That Turn the Mind to the Dharma</em>
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Such a human state is not only rare and precious but very fragile. As such, one should meditate on the certainty of death and the uncertainty of when and how it will come. A student carries out meditation on the impermanence of life in order to cherish momentary existence and urgently make the best use of it. Meditation on the rarity of human existence and its impermanent nature is often followed by meditation on the law of cause and effect and the flaws of the cycle of existence, also known as samsara. If one does not take advantage of this fleeting human state to break the cycle of rebirth, one is bound to follow the law of cause and effect, and given the negative actions accumulated in innumerable lifetimes in the past, one is bound to remain trapped in this cycle of existence, which is filled with misery and pain. These four points of meditation, which often constitute the first set of topics for meditation in Tibetan Buddhism, are known as the four points of mind turning (བློ་ལྡོག་རྣམ་པ་བཞི་), as they turn one's mind away from the cycle of ordinary existence and are considered to be foundational practices on the spiritual path.

<h3>Mental Support</h3>
Along with holding dear the precious state of humanhood, one must also cherish and take advantage of the brief mental moments of positive thought and moral growth. Śāntideva writes in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
{{PullBcaVerses|1.5}}
In the chaos of samsara, with its endless mundane preoccupations and unrelenting ignorance, it is rare to have clear virtuous thoughts. If they happen to occur briefly through the blessings of the Buddha, they fade away as quickly as they appear. Thus, it is important to grasp the opportunities when they appear.

Among the various kinds of virtuous thoughts, righteous ''faith'' is fundamental for generating the thought of awakening. It is important to have faith and trust in the Buddha, his teachings, and those following his teachings with proper understanding. Above all, it is important to develop faith and trust in the state of enlightenment, or buddhahood, in the noble qualities and characteristics buddhahood comes with, and in the compassionate engagements of the bodhisattvas. It is mainly through such faith and the knowledge gained through study, reflection, and teachings that one would seriously take up the project of generating the thought of awakening. Thus, the Buddha advises in ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having faith in the Buddha and the qualities of the Buddha,
In the conducts of the heirs of the Buddha,
And in the unsurpassed state of enlightenment,
The superior beings generate the thought of enlightenment.

Faith is a prerequisite, like a mother who nurtures.
It protects and enhances good qualities.<ref>''Ratnolkādhāraṇī'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa dkon mchog ta la la'i gzungs zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D145, mdo sde, vol. 57, pa, fol. 63b, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0145.</ref>
}}
Citing such verses, a teacher often elaborates on the benefits of having faith and its crucial role in spiritual transformation with the aim of helping a student generate faith in the teacher, teachings, paths, and results. There is a popular Tibetan saying that goes: "For the hook of the Buddha's compassion to catch hold, sentient beings need the ring of faith." Another popular Buddhist statement found in ''The Sūtra of Ten Dharmas'' (''Daśadharmakasūtra'') says, "A person without faith cannot give rise to positive things just as a burnt seed won't produce a green sprout."<ref>''dad pa med pa'i mi la ni''/ /''dkar po'i chos rnams mi skye ste''/ /''me yis sa bon tshig rnams la''/ /''myu gu sngon po ji bzhin no''//. See ''Daśadharmakasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos bcu pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D53, dkon brtsegs, vol. 40, kha, fol. 166a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0053. See also ''Mañjuśrī Root Tantra'' (''Āryamañjuśrīmūlatantra'', ''<i>'</i>Phags pa 'jam dpal gyi rtsa ba'i rgyud'', in Derge Kangyur D543, rgyud, vol. 88, na, fol. 159b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0543.</ref>

A more specific faith required in this case is the faith and trust in the value and merits of the thought of awakening so that one would seek it earnestly. For this reason, many sūtras and masters like Śāntideva extol the power of bodhicitta as a source of incredible merit and benefit. It is recommended that a student repeatedly reflect on the merits of bodhicitta and generate great interest in and high regard for the thought of awakening, resulting in a strong enthusiasm to cultivate it.

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|caption=Venerable Thubten Chodron: <em>On Faith</em>
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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Geshe Kelsang Wangmo: <em>Buddhism Says Don't Have Faith? The Radical Teaching That Changes Everything</em>
}}</div>
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Another fundamental emotion one must cherish and cultivate as a condition for the thought of awakening is ''compassion'', an intense wish to free all sentient beings from suffering and the causes of suffering. Compassion is considered to be the root of the thought of awakening, which is defined as having the two components of compassion and wisdom. Compassion feels the suffering of sentient beings, and wisdom understands the perfect state of the Buddha as the ultimate freedom from suffering. Students are instructed to cultivate compassion, and teachers use different methods, including storytelling, as a way to engender compassion and convince students of its spiritual efficacy and power.<ref>Read about the power of compassion through Asaṅga's story. For example, see Lama Chimpa and Alaka Chattopadhyaya, trans., ''Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India'', ed. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990), 154–58, https://archive.org/details/TaranathasHistoryOfBuddhismInIndia/page/n183/mode/2up.</ref> Motivated by the intense compassion to deliver sentient beings from suffering and the deep faith in buddhahood as the ultimate state of deliverance, one must have an earnest wish to seek the state of the Buddha.

<h3>Preceptorial Support</h3>
Just as a person on a long and arduous journey to an unknown place needs a good guide, it is vital to have a knowledgeable and experienced teacher to guide the student on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Such a spiritual master is often called a ''kalyāṇamitra'', or virtuous friend. In ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra''), the Buddha compares such a master to a mother who gives birth, a father who attends to the child's welfare, a nanny who constantly looks after the child, a guide who shows the path, a doctor who heals, a guard who protects, etc.<ref>''rigs kyi bu khyod kyis bdag la ni nad par 'du shes bskyed do''/ /''dge ba'i bshes gnyen la ni sman pa'i 'du shes dang''/ ''gdams ngag la ni sman gyi 'du shes dang''/ ''nan tan nyams su blang ba la ni nad 'tsho ba'i 'du shes bskyed par bya'o''/. ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' makes up the lengthy final chapter of ''The Sūtra of the Ornament of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhāvataṃsakamahāvaipūlyasūtra''). For this passage, see ''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtrāt gaṇḍavyūhasūtraḥ paṭalaḥ'' (''Shin tu rgyas pa chen po'i mdo sangs rgyas phal po che zhes bya ba las sdong pos brgyan pa'i le'u ste bzhi bcu rtsa''), in Derge Kangyur D44, phal chen, vol. 38, nga, fol. 286b–287a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/WA0RK0044-45.</ref>

Many Buddhist writings discuss the qualities and character of a spiritual teacher, how to find and follow such a teacher, and the numerous benefits of following the teacher. In ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', Śāntideva describes the teacher for someone on the Mahāyāna path as having two qualities.
{{PullBcaVerses|5.102}}
A teacher must be very learned in the Mahāyāna system and also practice the path with integrity. Maitreya describes the Mahāyāna teacher as having nine qualities in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtra'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Follow a teacher who is disciplined, gentle and fully at peace,
Who has superior qualities, diligence, and knowledge of scriptures,
Who has realized the truth, and is skilled in speech,
And one who is an epitome of love, and indefatigable.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde'i rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, sems tsam, vol. 123, phi, fol. 25b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref>
}}

As one begins the process of a bodhicitta practice, it is important to have a teacher for the ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow. In ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya''), Śāntideva highly recommends having a teacher bestow the bodhisattva vow in person, as such a presence would strengthen the process of taking the vow and also subsequently help one to observe the precepts carefully. If one cannot find or access a teacher who can administer the vows, one can either take the vow in the presence of holy shrines and objects or by visualizing the buddhas and bodhisattvas before oneself. However, this is more difficult for a beginner, particularly when carrying out the ritual according to the Vast Conduct tradition, in which the process of granting the vow for the engaged bodhicitta is mainly composed of reading out the lines for oath-taking by a preceptor or officiant. Thus, having a teacher is important for the process of taking the bodhisattva vow, but the role of the teacher extends beyond the initial ritual of taking the vow and spans the entire journey to perfect enlightenment.

As one greatly benefits from the presence and guidance of a teacher, one can have many teachers, as did Sudhana, the son of a merchant whose story is told in ''The Stem Array Sūtra''. Instructed by Mañjuśrī, Sudhana travels from place to place seeking 110 teachers before he arrives in the presence of Maitreya. Like the case of Sudhana, the teachers guide the student on the spiritual path throughout the entire journey, and the student must follow the teacher with great devotion and trust. In ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', the young man Śrīsambhava and the girl Śrīmati give Sudhana a long discourse on the benefits of following a teacher and the manner in which one must follow a teacher. They advise Sudhana to see himself as a sick person, the teacher as a doctor, the teachings as medicine, and the adoption of the teachings into practice as the treatment leading to the cure.<ref>''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtrāt gaṇḍavyūhasūtraḥ paṭalaḥ'' (''Shin tu rgyas pa chen po'i mdo sangs rgyas phal po che zhes bya ba las sdong pos brgyan pa'i le'u ste bzhi bcu rtsa''), in Derge Kangyur, D44, phal chen, vol. 38, a, fol. 287a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/WA0RK0044-45.</ref> This is one of the most powerful similes to illustrate one's relationship with a teacher.

<h3>The Procedure for Taking the Vow</h3>
There are two different Mahāyāna traditions for the ritual of administering and taking the bodhisattva vow. One is the ritual adopted in the Profound View tradition (ཟབ་མོ་ལྟ་བརྒྱུད་, pronounced "Zabmo Tagyu") coming down from Nāgārjuna and his followers, and the other is the ritual passed down in the Vast Conduct (རྒྱ་ཆེན་སྤྱོད་བརྒྱུད་, pronounced "Gyachen Chogyu" or "Gyachen Chopegyu") tradition from Maitreya, Asaṅga, and their followers. While the two traditions share the overall framework of the oath-taking ritual, the liturgies and fine points of procedures vary between them. Today, verses from the second and third chapter of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' are used commonly as the standard liturgy for the bodhisattva vow ritual in the Profound View tradition. This procedure is based on what was practiced in the old Kadam tradition and later promoted by Patrul Rinpoche.

The Vast Conduct tradition uses a different set of recitations in prose to take the vow of aspiring bodhicitta and a set of questions and answers for the engaged bodhicitta vow as passed down from Atiśa. Kongtrul Lodrö Taye presents detailed liturgies and explanations for both traditions in the third volume of his Treasury of Precious Instructions (གདམས་ངག་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་མཛོད།).<ref>For vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions, see Tsadra's Damngak Rinpoche Dzö website, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/DNZ-03-GA-001. For an English translation of the third volume, see Artemus B. Engle, trans., ''Kadam: Stages of the Path, Mind Training and Esoteric Practice, Part 1,'' vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet (Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod), compiled by Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (Boulder, CO: Snow Lion, 2024).</ref>

{{Standout|'''An example of a text for taking the vow can be found here:'''
:[[Articles/The_Ritual_for_the_Bodhisattva_Vow_Arranged_according_to_the_Tradition_of_Patrul_Rinpoche_(Chatral_Rinpoche_2008)|༄༅། །བྱང་སྡོམ་བླང་ཆོག་དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་གསུང་རྒྱུན་ལྟར་བཀོད་པ་བཞུགས་སོ། །]]
:[[Articles/The_Ritual_for_the_Bodhisattva_Vow_Arranged_according_to_the_Tradition_of_Patrul_Rinpoche_(Chatral_Rinpoche_2008)|The Ritual for the Bodhisattva Vow]]
:Arranged According to the Tradition of Patrul Rinpoche
:by Chatral Rinpoche}}

<h4>The Seven-Limb Prayer</h4>
The actual act of taking the bodhisattva vow is normally preceded by the seven-limb practice, which includes prostration, offering, confession, rejoicing, requesting to teach, requesting to live long, and dedication of merits. This standard ritual of worship is said to help the candidate gain the required karmic merit and overcome obstacles so as to become a ready recipient of the bodhisattva vow. The verses from ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions"'' (''Bhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja'') are widely used as a chant for carrying out the seven-limb prayer.

In order to conduct the bodhisattva vow ritual, one should first set up a physical shrine with a clean and beautiful array of offering materials, such as water, flowers, incense, food, etc., and bless them with mantras for offerings. One may also visualize such a shrine and the range of offerings. The buddhas, bodhisattvas, and all enlightened and righteous spiritual beings are then invited to the sacred space to bestow the bodhisattva vow.

<h5>1. Prostration</h5>
The practice of prostration is carried out mentally with or without physical prostration and is often accompanied by chanting verses. A practitioner normally does a simple prostration of devotion to the buddhas and bodhisattvas by bowing down and touching the ground with one's forehead, palms, and knees. One imagines that one's negativities of the body, speech, and mind, and the five poisons of ignorance, attachment, aversion, jealousy, and pride are cleansed as one bows down, and the blessings of the enlightened body, speech, mind, qualities, and activities of the Buddha are received when one stands up.

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In a more advanced practice of prostration, one can mentally multiply one's body into countless numbers and make prostrations to buddhas in all directions. The highest form of prostration is said to be the practice of making prostration with no fixed concept or notion of the subject making the prostration, the object to whom the prostration is made, and the actual action of prostration. Everything is seen as an illusory flux with no self-existence, like a dream.

<h5>2. Offering</h5>
Prostration is followed by the practice of offerings. One can set up an array of offerings of actual things one possesses, including food, drinks, flowers, incense, etc. One can also make offerings of beautiful lands, waterfalls, streams, birds, flowers, jewels, riches, and other pleasant things which exist in the world but are not personally owned. In addition, one can make offerings of wonderful things through visualization, such as offerings of celestial showers or feasts to the buddhas and bodhisattvas. The magnificent offerings, real or imaginary, can be further multiplied to fill the universe in all directions.

A common all-inclusive offering is the offering of the ''maṇḍala'', or the universe with all the riches and pleasant objects in it. A practitioner visualizes the entire universe by making a hand gesture of it or by holding a replica of the world as presented in the ancient Indian cosmology. There are short and long versions of liturgies for making the maṇḍala offering.

Śāntideva also provides verses to make the offering of one's body, enjoyments, and virtues. He mentions these three sets of possessions in both his works, ''The Compendium of Training'' and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva emphatically encourages the aspiring bodhisattva to give away these three possessions—which are the main objects of attachment and the main cause of self-centricity and its corollary problems—for the sake of all sentient beings. The offering of one's body, enjoyments, and virtues comprise the giving away of the most cherished physical and psychological properties.

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<h5>3. Confession</h5>
Offering, which helps one accrue karmic merit, is followed by the practice of confession, which removes the karmic impurities that can obstruct the cultivation of the thought of awakening. Using various texts such as ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps'' (''Triskandhakasūtra''), ''General Confessions'' (སྤྱི་བཤགས།), and verses from chapter 2 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', one must confess and make amends for one's bodily, verbal, and mental wrongdoings, which include committing sinful actions or violating a precept one has promised to observe.

The confession must possess the four characteristics known as the ''four powers'' to become effective: intense remorse, sincere restoration, remedial action, and reliable support.

<h5>4. Rejoicing</h5>
The fourth limb of the practice is to rejoice in the good works of both oneself and others. From the enlightened activities of the buddhas of the three times and the virtuous activities of all saints to the wholesome deeds of all beings, one must feel proud of them and truly rejoice in them. Rejoicing in good works is considered to be an easy way to gain merit.

<h5>5. Requesting to Teach</h5>
It is the light of Dharma that is required to clear ignorance, the root cause of suffering. Yet, the teachers are reluctant to teach without earnest interest from the students, as the truth is profound and sentient beings are generally preoccupied with vanity. Thus, in the manner of Brahmā and Indra requesting the Buddha to stop his silence after his enlightenment and teach, a student must request the buddhas and teachers to teach or turn the wheel of Dharma.

<h5>6. Requesting to Live Long</h5>
The Buddha is said to have extended his life after receiving the request to live longer. As the existence in samsara is marred with pain and suffering, the enlightened beings who have attained the power to transcend the ordinary cycle of rebirth are said to often choose to exit from worldly existence and enter nirvana. Thus, the buddhas and masters are requested to not enter the state of nirvana but to remain in the world for the benefit of sentient beings.

<h5>7. Dedication</h5>
Finally, one takes the merit accumulated from the six above-mentioned practices and all the other merit one has accumulated and dedicates that to the welfare of sentient beings. This is done with the following prayer: "May these virtuous actions help sentient beings reach the complete and perfect state of the Buddha."
The seven-limb prayer is often carried out by chanting the verses from ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions,"''<ref>See Rigpa Translations, trans., ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions"'' (''Zangchö Mönlam'') (Lotsawa House 1996), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/words-of-the-buddha/samantabhadra-aspiration-good-actions.</ref> which are taken from ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' from the Buddhāvataṃsaka collection. The verses from chapter 2 and 3 of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' are also used as a liturgy for conducting the seven-limb prayer.

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<h4>Mind Training</h4>
Having accumulated the required resources of merit and having removed the obstacles through the seven-limb prayer, one then prepares the state of one's mind. Just as a field is tilled to prepare it for planting, one makes one's mind conducive and pliable for the cultivation of bodhicitta.

There is a wide range of practices for mind training before and after taking the bodhisattva vow. Here, Patrul Rinpoche adopts the earnest arousal of the ''four immeasurable thoughts'' to prepare the mindset. They are loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, which are cultivated through the following wishes respectively.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=May all sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness.
May all sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering.
May all sentient beings be never separated from sacred joy.
May all sentient beings be free from attachment, aversion, partiality and abide in great equanimity.
}}
Following the cultivation of these four immeasurable thoughts, one must also cultivate the strong resolve to forsake everything for the sake of all sentient beings. One can chant the following verse and verses 12–22 of chapter 3 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
{{PullBcaVerses|3.11}}

<h4>The Actual Taking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h4>
There are two sets of liturgies for the actual taking of the bodhisattva vow passed down from the two main Mahāyāna traditions. Today, the Profound View tradition mainly uses the verses from chapter 2 and 3 of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', while the Vast Conduct tradition uses lines from Atiśa's ''Ritual Procedures for the Generation of the Mind and Vows'' (''Cittotpādasaṃvaravidhikrama'').<ref>See Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna, ''Cittotpādasaṃvaravidhikrama'' (''Sems bskyed pa dang sdom pa'i cho ga'i rim pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3969, dbu ma, vol.112, gi, fols. 245a2–248b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3969. For an English translation of the text (with Wylie), see Richard Sherburne, trans., ''The Complete Works of Atīśa, Śrī Dīpaṁkara Jñāna, jo-bo-rje: The Lamp for the Path and Commentary, Together with the Newly Translated Twenty-five Key Texts'' (New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2003), 536–51.</ref>

Although in some practices the ritual of taking refuge is added to the seven-limb prayer, making it an eight-limb prayer, as we find in the case of Śāntideva's and Atiśa's texts, most traditions have the verse for taking refuge chanted just before taking the bodhisattva vow. In this way, one takes the vow of refuge as well as the bodhisattva vow in one session.

In the Profound View tradition, the vows for both aspiring and engaged bodhicitta are taken in one session, while in the Vast Conduct tradition the two types of bodhisattva vows are taken separately. In the former tradition, the presence of a physical teacher is not essential, although that is preferred and highly recommended. In the latter tradition, as the second vow of engaged bodhicitta is taken mainly through a Q&A, there is a need for an officiant in person. The former also does not require a human birth as a precondition, and nonhuman beings such as gods and nāgas can get the bodhisattva vow. However, the Vast Conduct tradition argues that the bodhisattva vow must be based on general Buddhist ''prātimokṣa'' vows, which only a human can take.

<h5>Liturgy in the Profound View Tradition</h5>
In order to take the vows, one must first ask the buddhas, the bodhisattvas, and the great teachers to pay attention to the request, stating,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All buddhas, transcendent and accomplished conquerors, residing in the ten directions, bodhisattva great beings abiding on the ten levels (''bhūmi''s), and great guru vajra-holders, please consider me.<ref>''phyogs bcu na bzhugs pa'i sangs rgyas bcom ldan 'das thams cad dang''/ ''sa bcu la gnas pa'i byang chub sems dpa' sems dpa' chen po rnams dang''/ ''bla ma rdo rje 'dzin pa chen po rnams bdag la dgongs su gsol''/. For the Tibetan text, see Chatral Rinpoche, ''Byang sdoms blang chog dpal sprul gsung rgyun ltar bkod'', in Gsung 'bum, Bya bral sangs rgyas rdo rje (Taiwan: Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2017), 2: 215, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ354420. See also, Rigpa Translations, trans., "The Ritual for the Bodhisattva Vow: Arranged According to the Tradition of Patrul Rinpoche," by Chatral Rinpoche (Lotsawa House, 2008), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/chatral-rinpoche/bodhisattva-vow-patrul-tradition.</ref>
}}
With an exceptional motivation to save all sentient beings from suffering, one takes refuge in the exceptional objects, including the buddhas, their teachings, and the sangha community of enlightened bodhisattvas, for an exceptional duration—that is, until one reaches enlightenment. With such an attitude, one chants the following verse from the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' three times:
{{PullBcaVerses|2.26}}
This is followed by the verses to take the two types of bodhisattva vows: the vow of aspiring bodhicitta and that of engaged bodhicitta. The vow of aspiring bodhicitta is the pledge to attain the resultant buddhahood, while the vow of engaged bodhicitta is said to be the pledge to engage in the path leading to buddhahood. In the tradition coming down from Asaṅga, the vows for aspiring bodhicitta and engaged bodhicitta are taken separately and have different prerequisites. However, in Śāntideva's tradition presented here, vows for both are taken simultaneously. The following verses from chapter 3 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' are chanted three times, and one obtains vows for both aspiring and engaged bodhicitta at the end of the third recitation. At the end of the third recitation, one must mentally think one has received the vow.
{{PullBcaVerses|3.23}}
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<h5>Liturgy in the Vast Conduct Tradition</h5>
The Vast Conduct tradition has a different procedure and different liturgies for administering the aspiring and engaged bodhicitta vows separately. Below are the core parts of the liturgies which the officiant must read out three times and have the recipient of the vow repeat or respond to.

<h5>Core Liturgy for the Aspiring Bodhicitta</h5>
The officiant chants the following lines three times and has the recipient of the vow repeat after him or her.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=By means of whatever roots of virtue having the nature of generosity, morality, or meditation that I, who am named so-and-so, have performed in any of my various past lives, that I induced others to perform, or that I have rejoiced at when they were performed by others, just as the former tathāgatas, arhats, and true and complete buddhas, as well as the bodhisattvas who are great beings that reside on the great ārya bodhisattva stages, generated the mind that aspires to attain unsurpassed true and complete enlightenment, I, too, who am named so-and-so, from this moment on until I reach the seat of enlightenment, generate the mind that aspires to attain unsurpassed true and complete great enlightenment.

I shall deliver those who have not been delivered;
I shall liberate those who have not been liberated;
I shall provide relief to those who are without relief;
and I shall establish all beings who have not attained complete
nirvana in that state of complete nirvana.<ref>Artemus Engle, trans., ''Kadam: Stages of the Path, Mind Training, and Esoteric Practice, Part 1'', vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet, comp. Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (Boulder, CO: Snow Lion, 2024), 462.</ref>
}}

<h5>Core Liturgy for the Engaged Bodhicitta</h5>
The liturgy for taking the engaged bodhicitta vow in the Vast Conduct tradition contains many questions and answers in order to prepare and confirm the conviction of the practitioner before taking the actual vow. The following lines are only the core and final part of the recitation which the officiant must say three times and the recipient of the vow must respond to affirmatively.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Then, the spiritual teacher should ask:

O son or daughter of good family who is named so-and-so, do you accept from me, a spiritual teacher and bodhisattva who is named so-and-so, all of the bodhisattva precepts and all of the bodhisattva morality—namely, the morality of restraint, the morality of acquiring virtuous qualities, and the morality of acting on behalf of sentient beings—those precepts and that morality that have been observed by all the bodhisattvas of the past, those precepts and that morality that shall be observed by all the bodhisattvas of the future, and those precepts and that morality that currently are being observed by all the bodhisattvas of the present throughout the ten directions, those precepts and that morality with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the past have trained themselves, with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the future shall train themselves, and with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the present are training themselves?

The disciples should receive the vow by answering:

I do accept all of them.<ref>Engle, ''Kadam'', 483.</ref>
}}

<h4>Concluding Procedures</h4>

<h5>Rejoicing Oneself</h5>
Having received the bodhisattva vows, one rejoices in the achievement, reflecting on how one has made human birth meaningful and how one has been reborn in the family of buddhas. One thinks, it is astounding if a blind man scavenging in a heap of rubbish finds the most precious jewel; It is equally astounding for an ordinary person blind with ignorance to find the thought of awakening, which is the jewel of the mind, in the midst of one's afflictive emotions and thoughts.

<h5>Asking Others to Rejoice</h5>
One then chants the verse, asking all other beings to also rejoice in this achievement. With the buddhas as witnesses, one invites all beings as guests to the great offering of the ultimate state of the Buddha and all other kinds of happiness in the interim. The ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow is concluded with prayers for bodhicitta to grow and flourish and for the fulfillment of one's bodhisattva aspiration and project. (link to the verse).

<h5>Making Offerings in Gratitude</h5>
The ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow, especially if it is done for the first time in the presence of a master, would also include the offering of gifts as a token of gratitude. Such an act of offering is undertaken at the end of almost all important sessions of receiving teachings or vows and may involve cash or other gift items. The ceremony of taking the vow will normally end with verses for the dedication of merit like any other Mahāyāna session.

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<h2>Protecting Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Precepts</h2>

<h3>The Discipline of Abstaining from Misdeeds</h3>
The practice of bodhisattva moral discipline after taking the bodhisattva vow is often presented in three categories.
# The discipline of abstaining from misdeeds
# The discipline of gathering virtue
# The discipline of working for the welfare of sentient beings

The discipline of abstaining from misdeeds includes the moral precepts a bodhisattva must follow and the major and minor transgressions, known as downfalls in the Buddhist vocabulary. These are listed below. The second and third discipline concern things a bodhisattva should do and will be covered in subsequent sections.

<h4>Precepts for Aspiring Bodhicitta</h4>
One must avoid the four dark dharmas and follow the four white dharmas taught in ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra'').

Don'ts
#Cheat the venerable ones, including teachers
#Make someone with no regret regret a good deed
#Defame a noble being such as a bodhisattva
#Deceive sentient beings

Dos
#Tell no lies knowingly
#Treat sentient beings with benevolence
#Respect and praise a bodhisattva
#Place beings on the path to perfect buddhahood

<h4>Precepts for Engaged Bodhicitta in the Profound View Tradition: Eighteen Root Downfalls</h4>
One must avoid the eighteen root downfalls (transgressions or misdeeds) according to ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), which Śāntideva cites in ''The Compendium of Training'' and refers to in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.

<h5>Five Downfalls a King Is Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Take away property from the Three Jewels and stūpas
# Discard the holy Dharma of any vehicle
# Persecute someone in monastic robes, whether a monk or a transgressor
# Commit one of the five actions of immeasurable consequences
# Take up wrong views and nonvirtuous practices and make others do so

<h5>Five Downfalls a Minister Is Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Destroy a village
# Destroy a region
# Destroy a town
# Destroy a city
# Destroy a country

<h5>Eight Downfalls Common People Are Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Teach emptiness to someone who is not ready and make the person turn away from Mahāyāna
# Dissuade someone from the Mahāyāna path so that the person seeks individual liberation
# Dissuade someone from monastic and vinaya discipline saying it is better to train on the Mahāyāna path
# Deny that the path of disciples leads to the end of desire, etc. and convince someone
# Praise oneself and disparage others out of jealousy
# Sell oneself with lies of seeing the truth for the sake of wealth and veneration
# Get a monk punished and accept bribes regarding such an act
# Obstruct meditation by diverting provisions for practitioners to those doing recitation

<h4>Precepts for Engaged Bodhicitta in the Vast Conduct Tradition: Four Root Downfalls</h4>

Asaṅga summarizes the root downfalls taught in different sūtras into four in his ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi'').
#Praise oneself and criticize others out of attachment for wealth and veneration
#Not give wealth or Dharma to others out of stinginess
#Not accept an apology and hurt others out of anger
#Abandon Mahāyāna and teach fake dharma as true Dharma

<h4>Precepts for Both Aspiring and Engaged Bodhicitta</h4>
#Not forsake any sentient being or give up on helping someone and seek individual liberation
#Not engage in altruistic work or help, even if one is in a position to help

<h4>Minor Downfalls</h4>
Minor downfalls include various physical, verbal, and mental actions one must avoid as taught in chapter 5 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Compendium of Training'', and many sūtras. They include bodily comportments, such as unbecoming behavior, nonvirtuous forms of speech, such as idle gossip and harsh words, and negative thoughts and emotions. Commentators on ''The Compendium of Training'' enumerate eighty minor downfalls, while Candragomin's ''Vows in Twenty Verses'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'') mentions forty-six minor downfalls. The following passage from ''The Compendium of Training'' summarizes the complex moral system and downfalls of bodhisattva practice.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=In order to pacify the suffering and mental pain of all sentient beings in the present and in the future, and to generate happiness and mental pleasure of all sentient beings in the present and in the future, if a bodhisattva does not diligently engage body, speech, and mind without wavering, does not seek the conditions for them, does not work on remedying what obstructs them, does not take up the small suffering and mental pain which can overcome great suffering and mental pain, does not forsake small things for achieving greater things, and neglects doing so even for a moment, he/she commits a downfall. There is no downfall for not taking up what is beyond one's capacity, as there is no rule made for that in reality. In other cases [i.e., where one is capable], it is either a misdeed by nature or by restriction.<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fols. 11a6-11b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940.</ref>
}}
Śāntideva points out that some actions may appear like a downfall, called images of downfalls, but they are not downfalls. Such actions might include telling a white lie to save a life. These actions are permitted. But some actions may appear to be without a downfall, called images of non-downfalls, while being a downfall in reality. Such actions would include those which externally appear virtuous but are done with selfish intentions or actions that involve trying to do things which are beyond one's capacity.

<h4>Making Amends</h4>
Transgressing a bodhisattva vow is considered a serious offense, as such a person loses his or her moral integrity, fails to keep one's status, displeases the buddhas, lets down sentient beings whom one has promised to save, and could be reborn in unhappy realms. Thus, one must make amends through confession within six hours, or one-sixth of a day. Applying the four powers for confession mentioned earlier, a bodhisattva who has committed a downfall must make confessions and amendments. Śāntideva recommends that a bodhisattva who has committed a downfall must confess by chanting ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps'' three times during day and three times during the night.<ref>See ''Triskhandhakasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa phung po gsum pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo'') D284, mdo sde, vol. 68, ya, 57a3–77a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0284. For an English translation, see Stefan Mang and Peter Woods (Samye Translations), trans., "The Bodhisattva's Confession of Downfalls" (Lotsawa House, 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/words-of-the-buddha/confession-of-downfalls-nyingma.</ref>

Śāntideva also cites ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' and advises that a bodhisattva who has committed downfalls can confess to Ākāśagarbha, who will appear in a dream in some form to help one make amends by giving instructions. The bodhisattva must make the following supplication to Ākāśagarbha before twilight and sleep again:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Dawn! Dawn! O Compassionate and Fortunate One! As soon as you shine on the world, cover me with compassion. I also entreat Ākāśagarbha, the compassionate one, to show me the means by which I can confess the downfalls and the means by which I can attain the wisdom and skillful means of the sublime Mahāyāna.<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fol. 42a6-42b1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. For the passage in the ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa nam mkha'i snying po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), see Derge Kangyur D260, mdo sde, vol. 66, za, fol. 275.b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0260.</ref>
}}

<h3>The Discipline of Gathering Virtue</h3>
The discipline of gathering virtue refers to the bodhisattva practice of the six perfections, including giving, discipline, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom. How a practitioner takes up the practice of these six perfections will be explained below under the practice of engaged bodhicitta. It may be noted here, however, that through the six perfections, a bodhisattva gathers what is known as the ''two accumulations'': the accumulation of merit (''puṇyasambhāra'', བསོད་ནམས་ཀྱི་ཚོགས་) and the accumulation of pristine wisdom (''jñānasambhāra'', ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་ཚོགས་). The practice of the first five perfections falls under the first accumulation, and the sixth perfection comprises the second accumulation. A bodhisattva must complete these two accumulations or the six perfections (ཕར་ཕྱིན་དྲུག་རྫོགས་) in order to reach full buddhahood. In addition, a bodhisattva must also help mature or prepare the minds of his or her future disciples (གདུལ་བྱའི་རྒྱུད་སྨིན་) and cultivate the kind of realm or world he or she will attain (ཞིང་སྦྱོང་བ་). The latter two are undertaken through the various prayers a bodhisattva should make.

<h3>The Discipline of Benefitting Sentient Beings</h3>
The discipline of benefiting sentient beings is normally presented through the four means of attraction. While the discipline of abstaining from misdeeds and the discipline of gathering virtue helps a practitioner in self-development, the discipline of benefiting sentient beings helps the practitioner engage in altruistic activities for others. The four means of attraction are a skillful strategy with which a bodhisattva can benefit the world.

<h4>Gift Giving</h4>
A practitioner of the bodhisattva path should first give material gifts or Dharma teachings to attract potential beneficiaries. Most sentient beings appreciate gifts, and this helps attract their attention.

<h4>Sweet Words</h4>
Having attracted sentient beings through giving, the bodhisattva speaks to the audience with soft and persuasive speech to make them enter the right path. Thus, material gifts are followed by sweet talk.

<h4>Purposeful Practice</h4>
With knowledge of the wide spectrum of paths to enlightenment, the bodhisattva then teaches a path which is suitable and most effective to the audience. It is important to impart teachings which are appropriate to the capacity, disposition, and interest of the audience.

<h4>Consistent Engagement</h4>
While teaching the appropriate path to the audience, it is important for the bodhisattva to also lead by example. Thus, a practitioner of bodhisattva discipline must walk the talk and engage in the appropriate practice himself or herself.

<h3>The Four Bodhisattva Actions</h3>
Śāntideva's ''Compendium of Training'', which is an anthology of passages from the Mahāyāna sūtras on the training and practice of bodhisattvas, summarizes the training of bodhisattvas under the four actions of giving, protection, purification, and expansion of the three objects, including body, possessions, and virtues of the past, present, and future times. This is presented in a verse in ''The Compendium of Training'' as the crux of the matter to avoid any transgressions on the bodhisattva path:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions. (3)
}}

{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them. (4)<ref>For the verses in Tibetan, see Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fol. 1b , http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
}}
Śāntideva presents the four actions as a way for the practitioner engaged in the bodhisattva training to avoid moral transgressions and to make progress on the path. It is important for the practitioner to practice giving in the form of charity, teaching, and company. One must particularly dedicate and give one's body, possessions, and virtues to all sentient beings. Only by giving up attachment to these three objects of ordinary attachment and using these three objects for the benefit of the world can a person truly make progress on the bodhisattva path.

In order to have them available for sentient beings, a practitioner must protect these objects. One must not waste, squander, or neglect these objects, which can be of great benefit to the world. A practitioner's sense of giving and protecting these objects should not be stained by selfish interests and other negative emotions but be pure and wholesome. Thus, a bodhisattva must purify one's thoughts, speech, and actions and make available the three objects of body, possessions, and virtues to sentient beings in a pure form, in both thought and deed. If the benefit of the three objects of body, possessions, and virtues are not multiplied or expanded, there cannot be a great impact which is appropriate for the vast world of sentient beings. Thus, a practitioner must expand and scale up the impact of giving one's body, possessions, and virtues so that sentient beings gain optimal benefit. Such expansion and amplification is carried out through practices such as visualization and dedication.

<h2>Enhancing Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Practices</h2>

<h3>Enhancing Aspiring Bodhicitta</h3>

The ritual for taking the bodhisattva vow only starts the process of training in the Mahāyāna path for a new practitioner. Such an initial cultivation of bodhicitta must be followed by persistent practice to sustain and strengthen it, and there are many ways of nurturing the altruistic mind and cultivating bodhicitta. In the Profound View tradition, the practice of the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, as presented by Śāntideva in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', feature as the main practice. In the Vast Conduct tradition, the contemplation on the seven points of cause and effect, passed down from Asaṅga via Atiśa, is the most well-known practice. The meditation on the four immeasurable thoughts of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity is another method to cultivate the aspiring bodhicitta.

In carrying out these practices, an important point is to treat all sentient beings with equanimity, without any discrimination and partiality. To do so, in most Tibetan Buddhist traditions, a practitioner is instructed to visualize one's mother alongside a person whom one hates or whom one may consider as an enemy. In some traditions, one is encouraged to visualize one's mother as the center figure surrounded by other loved ones and all other sentient beings, including one's enemies. The figure of the mother is used because the mother is generally considered to be the person who loves one the most and toward whom one normally has a strong affection.

In order to cultivate a strong sense of equanimity, some masters use the concept of rebirth. As one has taken innumerable rebirths in the past in this cycle of existence, all beings have become one's mother, not just once or twice but countless times. While they were mothers, they have been as kind and loving as one's present mother. Thus, all sentient beings are treated equally as recipients of one's love and compassion. It is with such a sense of impartiality that one must practice the different methods of strengthening the aspiring bodhicitta.
<span id="The_Equality_between_Self_and_Others" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>The Equality between Self and Others</h4>
The practice of equality between self and others is carried out through the following series of contemplative thoughts and arguments.

<h5>Equal in Desiring Happiness</h5>
All sentient beings equally desire happiness. There is no difference between myself and others in wanting happiness, although we may differ in how we seek such happiness. Therefore, there is no reason why I should only seek my own happiness and not that of others. Śāntideva states:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.95}}
It is irrational and irresponsible that I seek only my happiness when both I and all other sentient beings equally desire happiness. Thus, I must seek happiness for others because they are sentient beings, just like my own body. As Śāntideva has said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=And others I will aid and benefit,
For they are living beings, like my body. (8.94)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 122.</ref>
}}

<h5>Equal in Disliking Suffering</h5>
All sentient beings equally dislike suffering. There is no difference between myself and others in not wanting pain and suffering. Therefore, there is no reason why I should only eliminate my own suffering and not that of others. Śāntideva states:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.96}}
It is irrational and irresponsible that I seek to eliminate only my own suffering when both I and all other sentient beings equally dislike suffering. Thus, I must eliminate the suffering of others because they are suffering, just like my own pain. As Śāntideva has said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=And therefore I'll dispel the pain of others,
For it is simply pain, just like my own. 8.94<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 122.</ref>
}}

<h5>Equal in Being Part of One Whole</h5>
If it is argued that I and others are different and therefore I need not seek the happiness of others and eliminate the suffering of others, such distinction is imaginary and subjective. The hands and feet are different parts of the body, but they can be seen as being parts of the same body. The hand helps to scratch when the foot is itching. In the same way, all sentient beings are parts of the living world as a whole, and I ought to look after other sentient beings. Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.114}}

<h5>Equal in Not Having "Self" or an Owner of Experience</h5>
Moreover, if there were a true self or owner of the experience of happiness or suffering, one could make such a distinction and discriminate. However, there is no such self who owns the experience to be found if I critically examine the mind-body composition. All beings are merely an assembly of many psycho-physical constituents, and our experiences are the same. There is no difference in the experiences and no real person or being to distinguish us as different individuals. Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.102}}

<h5>Equal in Being Able to Cherish Others</h5>
If it is thought that I cannot love strangers and unrelated sentient beings just as I love myself or those related to me, such a thought is mistaken. Sentient beings can easily love others with a change of mindset and habituation. If I buy a dog from a shelter and adopt it as a pet, from the moment I take it under my care, I would cherish and love it, although it was unknown to me before such a time. It is a matter of opening one's heart to cherish sentient beings. Even the love for one's body has come about as a result of one's mental attitude and habituation, just as Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.115}}

<h5>Equalize Thinking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h5>
A practitioner must regularly remember the bodhisattva vow one has taken and remind oneself of one's commitment to rescue all sentient beings from suffering. One should think: "I am a responsible person and a person of integrity. I must not break my promise or falter from the pledge which I have taken in the presence of all buddhas and sentient beings." All beings were given assurance that I will help them and save them from suffering. If I were to give up the promise, let down the buddhas, and deceive sentient beings, what will be my future?" With such thoughts, a practitioner endeavors to equally benefit other sentient beings as oneself and strives to equally dispel the suffering of others as one's own suffering. To this effect, Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|4.4}}
<span id="The_Exchange_between_Self_and_Others" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>The Exchange between Self and Others</h4>
The next step after the practice of equalizing oneself and others is the practice of exchange between self and others. In ordinary life and the world, one is used to cherishing oneself (བདག་གཅེས་འཛིན་), but on the bodhisattva path, one must cherish others (གཞན་གཅེས་འཛིན་). In actualizing bodhicitta, love and compassion for others takes priority over love for oneself. Altruism overrides self-centricity. One must, therefore, switch from cherishing and loving oneself to cherishing and loving others. In order to exchange between self and others as the object of love and affection, one must contemplate the virtues, advantages, and appropriateness of cherishing others and the vices, disadvantages, and inappropriateness of cherishing oneself.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Value of Actions</h5>
Self-love is at worst evil and at best ordinary, whereas altruistic love is noble and sublime. Taking the case of giving, Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.125}}
Ethically speaking, an altruistic action has high positive value, whereas a selfish action is negative and deplorable, even by worldly standards. Thus, considering the ethical value of altruistic actions, one must cherish others instead of cherishing oneself.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Result of Actions</h5>
Following the law of cause and effect, a selfish action is negative and therefore leads to undesirable results, whereas an altruistic action is a highly positive action which results in desirable outcomes. Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.126}}
{{PullBcaVerses|8.129}}
In order to avoid pain and suffering and to instead experience pleasure and happiness, it is important to stop cherishing oneself and to cherish others and engage in altruistic actions.

<h5>Exchange to Follow Great Beings</h5>
When one looks at the history of the world, all great beings, including the Buddha and other sublime Mahāyāna masters, have become great by cherishing others. Ordinary beings remain stuck in lowly life because they only cherish themselves. Śāntideva remarks:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.130}}
In order to emulate the great beings and, in particular, follow the Buddha on the path to enlightenment, it is essential to cherish others and to engage in altruistic actions. Cherishing oneself is giving in to the ordinary habit of the childish.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Number and Significance</h5>
Moreover, it is important to cherish others over oneself because the world of sentient beings is far greater in number and significance than oneself or a small group of one's loved ones. A wise person works for the vast majority and the greater good of society at large instead of a single person or family. The impact of working for others will be manifold compared to the result of working for just oneself. Thus, Śāntideva exhorts:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.139}}

<h5>Exchange Thinking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h5>
A practitioner recollects the bodhisattva vow he or she has taken to serve all sentient beings. In order to live up to one's pledge and act according to the oath taken in the presence of the buddhas and sentient beings, the practitioner reinforces the commitment to work for all sentient beings and to cherish others over and above oneself. As Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|4.4}}
Using different arguments and justifications, one must exchange oneself and others and swap cherishing oneself with cherishing others. One must know that if one does not do so, there is no benefit in the long term in cherishing oneself. Śāntideva has this reminder:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.131}}
{{PullBcaVerses|8.136}}
<span id="Tonglen_-_The_Practice_of_Exchange" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>Tonglen - The Practice of Exchange</h4>
In Tibet, the practice of exchange between self and others is taken up commonly as ''tonglen'', or giving and taking. In this practice, one takes the suffering and problems of other sentient beings onto oneself and gives to them one's own happiness and resources.

One would mentally place one's mother and all sentient beings in front of oneself and, out of an intense feeling of gratitude and affection, imagine giving one's body, possessions, and virtues to them. As one does this, one can visualize a white, soothing, blissful substance, like warm milk or soft wool, which is in essence joy and happiness, flowing out of oneself to others. As the soothing substance envelopes others and fills these beings, the area, the world, and, gradually, the entire universe, one imagines that the beings are filled with joy and bliss. Then, one visualizes a dark, foul substance, like dirty smoke, which is in essence suffering and the problems of the world, flowing from others into one's own being. As it enters one's body, one imagines that all the problems and miseries of others are taken in by oneself. Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim wrote the following to this effect:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=May my body, possessions, and stock of virtues
All bear fruit for every sentient being.
May all diverse emotions and wrongdoing of the world
Fall upon me and may they be well.<ref>Karma Phuntsho, ''The Life and Works of Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim'' (Thimphu: Loden Foundation, 2023), 59.</ref>
}}
This practice of ''tonglen'', which is highlighted in the ''lojong'', or mind training, tradition of the Kadam school, is also combined with breathing exercises. In such practice, as one exhales, one visualizes soft, milky, blissful clouds of happiness and joy issuing forth from one's body and filling the target beneficiaries, the world, and the universe with the white soothing substance, which is bliss and happiness. As one inhales, one visualizes a dark, foul substance, which is suffering and the problems of other beings, pouring into oneself and thereby freeing all other sentient beings from sufferings and problems.

As it can be challenging to imagine taking in all the problems and suffering of the world for an ordinary practitioner, some traditions add an extra step of visualization. As the negative energy and suffering of the entire world is absorbed in the form of a dark, putrid substance during inhalation, one visualizes in the center of one's heart a powerful and radiant vajra or ball of light which transmutes the negative energy and suffering into positive energy and sublime bliss. One then imagines, as one exhales, that this positive energy and bliss in the form of soothing white light is sent out to cover all sentient beings and fill the entire universe.

<h4>Seven-Point Instructions of Cause and Effect</h4>
One of the most popular contemplative practices to enhance the aspiring bodhicitta and strengthen the bodhisattva's willpower is the seven-point instructions of cause and effect coming down from Atiśa through the Kadam tradition. Unlike Śāntideva's instructions, which use rational arguments, the seven-point instructions use the concept of reincarnation and the belief in innumerable rebirths one has taken in the past. Starting with the belief that all sentient beings have become one's mother, the instructions proceed from one point to another in the form of the preceding point being a cause leading to the subsequent one as the result. Thus, it is known as the seven-point instructions of cause and effect.

<h5>1. Seeing All Beings as Your Mother</h5>
The first point of meditation is to recognize all sentient beings as having been one's mother. One meditates on the point that in the course of the countless rebirths one has taken in this cycle of existence, all sentient beings have become one's mother, not just once or twice but innumerable times. Nāgārjuna states hypothetically that if one made balls of earth as big as Indian cypress seeds, the number of times a sentient being has become one's mother would exceed the number of balls one can make using the entire earth. Using the belief in the cycle of rebirth, one must generate the strong belief that all sentient beings have become one's mother.

<h5>2. Remembering the Kindness of the Mother</h5>
When they were our mothers, sentient beings showed us great love and affection. From carrying us in their wombs for nine months with much love and care, giving the best food, keeping us warm, and protecting us from harm, to helping us to grow up and succeed in life, they have shown unrelenting and unconditional love and kindness. They would have preferred to die rather than see us get even mildly sick. One should think of the absolute kindness with which the mother sentient beings have taken care of us in past lifetimes and how much one owes to them for their kindness.

<h5>3. Wishing to Repay the Kindness</h5>
Being acutely aware of their kindness, one must not only remember their kindness but act to repay the kindness. One must think: "Today, I am a capable and responsible human being. I should not merely feel the kindness of the mother sentient beings and be grateful but do something meaningful to show them gratitude and return their kindness." As a conscientious person, it is important to reciprocate the kindness others have shown to us. In this manner, one cultivates a strong compulsion to do something to reciprocate the love and kindness of the mother sentient beings.

<h5>4. Love</h5>
One wonders what would be the best way to reciprocate the kindness of the mother sentient beings. All sentient beings like happiness. Thus, it would be appropriate to show gratitude and return their kindness by helping them attain happiness. In order to attain happiness, one must have the causes and conditions for happiness. Therefore, one should seek happiness and the causes of happiness for all kind mother sentient beings in order to repay their kindness. As such, one makes the aspiration: "May all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness."

<h5>5. Compassion</h5>
In order to genuinely enjoy happiness, one must get rid of pain and suffering, and to do so, one must eliminate the causes of suffering. Therefore, one should seek to eliminate suffering and the causes of suffering so that the mother sentient beings can enjoy happiness. One makes the aspiration: "May all kind mother sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering."

<h5>6. Special Intention</h5>
Merely wishing that mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and be free from suffering and the causes of suffering is not enough. In order for them to realize this, one must take up the responsibility to help them do so and act with a strong resolve and determination. Thus, one should think: "Come what may, I shall personally strive to make all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and free them from suffering and the causes of suffering."

<h5>7. Generating the Mind of Enlightenment</h5>
Having developed such an unwavering resolve to make all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and free them from suffering and the causes of suffering, one seeks the most effective way to do so. What would be a viable and sustainable state to place all kind mother sentient beings in so that they can enjoy genuine happiness and be free from suffering? There is no genuine and lasting happiness and permanent freedom from suffering in this cycle of existence. All levels of existence in samsara are marred by dissatisfaction and eventually end up in suffering. Thus, there is no place or state of existence in samsara that is a viable permanent solution. Even if one attains the personal nirvana of individual liberation as an enlightened saint, there is no genuine happiness in an individualistic state of nirvana when the rest of the world around oneself is plunged in the sea of suffering. How can one enjoy full happiness by turning a blind eye to the suffering around oneself? Besides, even the enlightened saints, who are yet to become fully enlightened buddhas, are not free from the pain of subtle ignorance and the process of becoming. Thus, the only state with genuine and lasting happiness is the state of the fully enlightened buddha, who is not only free from all suffering and enjoying supreme bliss but also brimming with joy in helping sentient beings.

Thus, one should have the resolve: "In order to repay the immense kindness of my kind mother sentient beings, to help them attain genuine and lasting happiness and the causes of happiness, and to free them from suffering and the causes of suffering, I shall by myself and by any means place all kind mother sentient beings in the state of the unsurpassed, perfect, and fully enlightened Buddha." This seventh and final point is bodhicitta.

<span id="Four_Immeasurable_Thoughts" style="display: block; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></span>
<h4>Four Immeasurable Thoughts</h4>
The four immeasurable thoughts are loving kindness (''maitrī'', བྱམས་པ་), compassion (''karuṇa'', སྙིང་རྗེ་), sympathetic joy (''muditā'', དགའ་བ་), and equanimity (''upekṣā'', བཏང་སྙོམས་). Concepts which perhaps predate Buddhism, they form one of the most common sets of practices of love and goodwill in all schools of Buddhism. However, they play a very important role as techniques to express compassion and enhance altruism.

Loving-kindness refers to the wish to bring happiness and the causes of happiness to all sentient beings. Compassion refers to the wish to free all sentient beings from suffering and the causes of suffering. Sympathetic joy is the thought of rejoicing in the happiness of sentient beings and wishing they be never separated from it. And equanimity, as it is understood in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, is the attitude to treat all sentient beings with total impartiality, with no sense of discrimination, attachment, or aversion.

Like the practices above, it is considered important in the Mahāyāna system to develop equanimity as the first of the four immeasurable thoughts. Thus, one may start the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts by visualizing one's mother and one's enemy on equal terms in front of oneself, surrounded by other sentient beings. Only meditation with such a sense of equanimity becomes a truly Mahāyāna practice. Having one's parents, enemies, relatives, friends, colleagues, and the entire world of sentient beings as one's object of meditation, one can then cultivate the four immeasurable thoughts. There are many different ways of practicing the four immeasurable thoughts in the different Buddhist traditions. The cultivation of the four immeasurable thoughts through four modes according to the tradition passed down from Patrul Rinpoche is given below.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as an Aspiration</h5>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, never be separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in boundless equanimity free from partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Wish</h5>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attained happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, became free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, were never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abided in great equanimity free from partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Pledge</h5>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, become free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in great equanimity free from partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Supplication</h5>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, become free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in great equanimity free from partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Three Levels of Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts</h5>
In the Mahāyāna system, there are three different levels of contemplating the four immeasurable thoughts.
#The first level is to contemplate as mentioned above, with the conventional knowledge that sentient beings exist and need to be freed from suffering and placed in the state of happiness. Because one assumes sentient beings to exist and practices loving-kindness, etc. for sentient beings, this type of practice is known as loving-kindness focused on sentient beings (སེམས་ཅན་དམིགས་པ་).
#On the next, higher level of the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, one can practice loving-kindness, etc. with the awareness of the impermanent and transient nature of sentient beings. Impermanence and change are the true nature of conditioned life. Thus, the practice of loving-kindness, etc. with an awareness of impermanence is known as loving-kindness, etc. focused on the truth (ཆོས་ལ་དམིགས་པ་).
#On the highest level of ontological scrutiny and the nature of existence, there is no sentient being, no person practicing the four immeasurable thoughts, and no act of loving-kindness, etc. Everything is empty of true existence and is merely an illusory appearance. Thus, there is no object to apprehend; there is no focus or fixation on anything. The practice of loving-kindness without the sense of grasping and apprehension of anything is known as loving-kindness without apprehension (དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་). A bodhisattva must eventually cultivate the four immeasurable thoughts in this manner—without grasping, attachment, and fixation.

<h4>Compassion</h4>
A simple but powerful way to cultivate bodhicitta is to develop the feeling of compassion. As compassion is seen as the immediate cause of bodhicitta, many sūtras and commentarial treatises underscore the practice of compassion in order to cultivate genuine bodhicitta. Masters such as Candrakīrti and Kamalaśīla highlight the vital role of great compassion in generating bodhicitta and practicing the Mahāyāna path. Right at the beginning of his famous treatise ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''), Candrakīrti praises compassion by describing it as a process of cultivation, comparing it to a seed in the beginning, to water in the middle, and to a ripened harvest at the end.<ref>See Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, dbu ma, vol. 102, 'a, fol. 201b , http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> Thus, according to Candrakīrti, compassion plays a fundamental role throughout the Mahāyāna process of enlightenment. Similarly, in the first chapter of his ''Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama''), Kamalaśīla cites many sūtras to show how great compassion plays a central role in Mahāyāna practice. He then goes on to show how one can generate compassion by meditating on the suffering of sentient beings.

One must think of the myriad kinds of suffering sentient beings go through, from the unbearable cold and heat in the hell realms, the torment of hunger and thirst among hungry ghosts, and the exploitation, fear, torture, and killing that animals, insects, fish, and birds go through. Even as humans, beings suffer from poverty, subjugation, persecution, illness, death, separation from loved ones, and meeting with those who are unpleasant. One must meditate on the countless forms of pain and suffering sentient beings undergo and then wish all sentient beings to be free from such suffering. Repeatedly thinking of the suffering of sentient beings and intensely wishing all sentient beings to be totally free from such suffering leads to the quick and easy generation of bodhicitta.

Initially, one can generate such a wish for one's loved ones and then extend it to strangers and eventually to those one dislikes. Reflection on how one has taken countless rebirths in this cycle of existence and how all sentient beings have become one's mother and relatives may be carried out to help develop equanimity and generate intense compassion toward all sentient beings without bias and partiality.

Being an integral part of bodhicitta, compassion is seen as the quintessence of all spiritual practice. To this effect, Avalokiteśvara states in ''The Dharma Council Sūtra'' (''Dharmasaṃgītisūtra''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Blessed One! A bodhisattva need not train in numerous dharmas. If a bodhisattva understands and upholds one dharma, all dharmas of the Buddha will be on the palm of his hand. What is that one dharma? It is great compassion.<ref>''Dharmasaṃgītisūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos yang dag par sdud pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), Derge Kangyur D238, mdo sde, vol. 65, zha, fol. 84b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW30532_0238.</ref>
}}

<h3>Enhancing Engaged Bodhicitta</h3>
The practice of engaged or active bodhicitta covers the entire range of the Mahāyāna paths and practices that a bodhisattva must follow and adopt. The Mahāyāna paths and innumerable practices are commonly captured in the set of six perfections that a bodhisattva must master in order to reach the state of a fully enlightened buddha.

<h4>The Practice of the Six Perfections</h4>
The six perfections in Mahāyāna Buddhism are giving, discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom. They are said to cover all aspects of bodhisattva practice and are arranged in a sequence of their importance and depth, with the latter being more important and deeper than the former.

<h5>Giving (''dāna'', སྦྱིན་པ་)</h5>
The practice of giving or generosity is defined by the inner sense of giving rather than by the quantity or value of the material given. Śāntideva writes in the fifth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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Giving helps a practitioner overcome the negative trait of stinginess and attachment to things. If one has a strong attachment to things and is not able to give anything to others, a beginner could start by giving something from one hand to the other in order to get used to the act of giving. A student can train in giving by giving things of little value or by giving to people who are close. Gradually, a practitioner can give things of higher value, giving even to strangers and enemies. A bodhisattva develops the sense of giving gradually and tests his or her willpower and mental ability to give without expecting anything in return or any reward. A bodhisattva is not allowed to give anything he or she is not capable of giving wholeheartedly. When a bodhisattva has developed a strong sense of giving, he or she can give away even parts of the body with no attachment or regret. A bodhisattva with a highly advanced sense of giving will experience joy and bliss in giving away even parts of his or her own body. Thus, it is important to cultivate the inner sense of giving.

The will to give is often cultivated in the beginning by explaining the karmic benefit of giving. Giving leads to wealth and prosperity in the future. Thus, people are often encouraged to give with the belief of getting rich in the future. However, a bodhisattva's giving must transcend such worldly practice. Eventually, a bodhisattva must give without any expectation of return in this life or reward in the form of karmic results in future lifetimes. Stories of the Buddha and other masters are also frequently told to inspire giving. The Buddha is said to have given his body to a hungry tigress as Prince Mahāsattva and to flesh eating demons as King Maitrībala.
He is said to have given all the riches of his kingdom, his wife, children, and eyes to beggars as Prince Viśvantara. These and many other inspirational stories are used to help practitioners develop the sense of giving.

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The Mahāyāna tradition presents three types of giving:
#Giving material goods
#Giving protection
#Giving Dharma

One can give material gifts to one's teachers, parents, beggars, mendicants, and other recipients. Śāntideva's ''Compendium of Training'' mentions how a monk must practice giving by sharing a portion of one's alms with other beings. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' presents giving mostly in the context of making offerings to the enlightened beings as part of the seven-limb prayer and the dedication of one's body, possessions, and virtues to the welfare of all sentient beings. Making offerings, either through the actual giving of things or through visualization, is a very common practice of giving material gifts and services. Even if one does not have anything to give or cannot afford to do so, one can practice giving by imagining giving one's body, possessions, virtues, and other pleasant things in existence.

Giving protection includes saving life, giving company, and defending the weak. Rescuing animals from the butcher, saving fish from being killed, and freeing caged birds are some common examples of giving protection which Tibetan Buddhists practice regularly. The giving of Dharma or sharing knowledge and showing the truth is considered to be the highest form of giving, as it can bring lasting results leading to enlightenment.

A beginner may give with the mistaken notion that there is a real giver, recipient, and the object given. However, the practice of giving only qualifies as the practice of the perfection of giving when there is no fixed notion of the giver, recipient, and the object given. A bodhisattva must be able to give without the thought or notion of the three factors—giver, recipient, and the thing given.

<h5>Discipline (''śīla'', ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་)</h5>

The discipline of the bodhisattva is often classified into three actions: abstaining from misdeeds, gathering virtues, and working for the welfare of sentient beings, as shown above. It is, in essence, the renunciation or giving up of negative thoughts, words, and deeds and the engagement in positive actions. A bodhisattva attains the perfection of discipline by perfecting the mind of such renunciation or relinquishment. As such, it serves as an antidote to immorality and unethical life.

Discipline is considered a fundamental basis for the growth of other virtuous qualities, just as the earth itself is important for cultivation. With discipline, one can engage in meditation and develop insight or wisdom. The practice of discipline includes both following the precepts and having the mental integrity to stick to the righteous course of actions.

In order to do so, Mahāyāna masters such as Śāntideva underscore the importance of vigilance or carefulness (''apramāda'', བག་ཡོད་), which is described in the Buddhist texts as a state of being attentive to what is to be adopted and what is to be abandoned. Śāntideva devotes the fourth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' to developing such carefulness or conscientiousness. Another crucial state of the mind is mindfulness (''smṛti'', དྲན་པ་). Mindfulness in this context refers to remembering and not forgetting "the dos and don'ts" with respect to one's moral conduct. It is important to always be mindful of the object and field of one's engagements. Introspection or alertness (''saṃprajanya'', ཤེས་བཞིན་) is another state of the mind which is crucial for bodhisattva discipline. Introspection watches the body, speech, and mind with alertness to check on what they are up to and how they are engaged.

These three aspects of the mind are crucial for a practitioner on the bodhisattva path. One must have mindfulness to be always aware of what is right or wrong, have vigilance and be very careful and heedful of the different areas of engagement, and maintain introspection to constantly watch one's mind, speech, and body.

Equipped with these tools, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must follow the precepts listed above after taking the bodhisattva vow. In addition, there are ten nonvirtuous actions to be eschewed and ten virtuous actions to be adopted as part of the general practice of Buddhist ethics. The ten nonvirtuous actions are:
#Taking life
#Taking what is not given
#Sexual misconduct for bodily actions
#Telling lies
#Creating discord
#Speaking harsh words
#Idle gossip for verbal actions
#Covetousness
#Malicious thoughts
#Wrong view for mental actions

As an antidote to these actions, a practitioner must adopt the ten virtuous actions:
#Protecting life
#Giving charity
#Practicing chastity for bodily actions
#Speaking the truth
#Making peace/conciliation
#Speaking kind words
#Engaging in useful speech for verbal actions
#Contentment
#Loving-kindness
#Right view for mental actions

There are many books in which a practitioner can find the moral precepts and code of ethics regarding a bodhisattva's behavior. These include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Compendium of Training'', as well as ''The Thirty-Seven Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ལག་ལེན་སོ་བདུན་མ།). These texts summarize the very detailed and scattered presentations of the bodhisattva discipline in the Mahāyāna sūtras. Besides the moral codes, it is also important to have an effective routine for the practice of bodhisattva discipline. A twenty-four-hour day is normally divided into six periods, or "watches," and specific bodhisattva activities are allocated during those watches. Such disciplinary rules, depending on individual circumstances and needs, should make the life of a bodhisattva highly conducive and productive for the practice of the bodhisattva path.

Finally, a very important part of the practice of discipline is the ritual of making amends when one violates the precepts either consciously or unconsciously. For the transgression of root downfalls, or major violations, a practitioner must promptly make confessions and reparations before the end of the watch which follows the watch in which the lapse took place. If the major violation is not amended before the end of the following watch, then the bodhisattva is required to take the vow again. In order to make amends for all violations, a bodhisattva is advised, as explained earlier, to recite ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps''.

<h5>Patience (''kṣānti'', བཟོད་པ་)</h5>
Patience is the third of the six perfections and is described as the hardest practice, one that requires unparalleled fortitude. In the philosophical descriptions one finds in the texts, patience is characterized by an undisturbed state of the mind. Not being agitated by conditions, particularly unpleasant ones, is the essence of patience. It serves as a counterforce to anger, which is a strong agitation of the mind and is considered to be the most heinous of evils.

First and foremost, the practitioner must reflect on the destructive nature of anger and the futility of getting angry. A moment of anger can consume the virtues accumulated throughout a thousand eons and cause great mental pain and discomfort. It deprives a person of peace and calm and the ability to work effectively. Like a bottle of muddy water shaken violently, an angry mind is disturbed and lacks composure and clarity to do anything effectively. On the contrary, patience brings mental calm and clarity. Śāntideva highlights the futility of getting upset in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as follows:
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Having developed the conviction that getting upset and angry is only harmful and that patience is beneficial for inner peace and productivity, one must cultivate a patient and forbearing mind. From a traditional Buddhist point of view, anger, as the most heinous evil, also leads to rebirth in the lowest hells, where one will be tormented by pain and agony for eons, while patience leads to happy rebirths and particularly to future lifetimes with outstanding physical beauty. Even in this life, a peevish and angry person, even if a generous patron, is loathed and feared by others for his or her short temper, but a tolerant and serene person enjoys admiration and respect from others. Thus, the need for patience.

The practice of patience is divided into three based on the object of patience.
#Patience in tolerating harm doers
#Patience in bearing hardship
#Patience in understanding the teachings

The beings who cause harm and annoyance are the most obvious and common objects toward whom one must practice patience. "Without enemies, to whom can one practice patience," goes a Tibetan Buddhist saying.<ref>Similar sayings appear in a number of works: Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa'') contains teachings about viewing enemies as valuable teachers for developing patience. The ''Thirty-Seven Practices of a Bodhisattva'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'') by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo contains similar teachings about viewing enemies as precious teachers. Likewise, such statements appear in chapter 6 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'') by Śāntideva.</ref> Such enemies and harm doers can be endless and diverse if one remains easily annoyed and irritable in one's own character. Śāntideva writes in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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Knowing that the main solution to the many harms in the world lies in patience and forbearance, a bodhisattva must tolerate harm doers and not be upset by their harmful actions. One can do so with the broad view that the harm may be a result of one's own karma in past lifetimes and not a fault of the harm doer. By tolerating a small harm or annoyance in this life, one can expiate the negative karma and escape the terrifying consequences in the future.

Another way to cultivate patience is to know that the persons causing harm often do so under the influence of other factors, including their inner emotions and circumstances, over which they have no control. Thus, it is absurd to get upset at a person instead of having pity and compassion for them. In fact, due to one's negative karma, a harm doer causes harm, but in doing so the harm doer commits negative karma and begets more suffering in the lower realms. So, in reality, one does even greater harm to the harm doer by responding with anger instead of compassion. Thus, it is not right to be angry or upset at the harm doer.

Moreover, an incidence of harm such as one's body being struck by an enemy using a weapon is a result of a combination of many factors, including the body, weapon, enemy, anger, etc. So, why put the blame only on the person and not on the weapon? Furthermore, why only blame others who brandish the weapon and not oneself who brandishes the body? One must own a share of responsibility for having a body so prone to agony like a running sore. Using such moral and logical arguments, as presented in Śāntideva's writings, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must practice tolerance and forbearance of harm caused by other beings.

Another cause of frustration and anger is suffering and dissatisfaction in life. Although there may not be any personal agency, sentient beings get upset and angry at undesirable situations, such as illness, hunger, thirst, pain, and not getting the things one desires. A person on the bodhisattva path must practice patience in bearing hardship and suffering without giving in to frustration and anger. For this, one must reflect on the nature of existence and how it is filled with suffering and problems. Life in samsara is riddled with problems by nature. Thus, it will be nonsensical to expect it to be otherwise and get upset about it. How silly would it be to get angry at fire for being hot by nature?

Moreover, pain and problems are also subjective. Depending on the state of their mind, some brave men become more valiant upon seeing their own blood dripping, while timid people even faint upon seeing the blood of others. Thus, a practitioner must learn to be stoic and to disregard irritation because the one who is peevish sees more harm. A practitioner must also realize that existing problems may be hard to bear, but they are only a minor pain compared to the pain which anger begets. Such pain, like a small surgery to treat a serious ailment, is beneficial in the long run. It is likened to a prisoner on death row being freed with an arm chopped off.

Thus, a practitioner must not only face problems in life with a calm mind but also view pain and suffering as an important catalyst for spiritual transformation. As Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|6.21}}
Moreover, people go through various hardships and suffering even for petty worldly reasons such as material profit, political power, fame, marriage, or religious worship. What need is there to mention then the value of having fortitude and practicing patience to benefit sentient beings and to take them to the state of full enlightenment? A true hero is therefore someone who defeats the inner foe of anger and maintains calm and compassion even in the face of tragedy and great harm. The rest who defeat their enemies Śāntideva likens to stabbing a corpse.

Just as one must endure problems and suffering in life, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must also foster the courage and conviction to accept and fathom the true nature of reality and to align one's thoughts and deeds with truth. A bodhisattva must train to understand the true nature of phenomena, such as the impermanence of conditioned things, the interdependence of all phenomena, the absence of an inherent self or person, the selflessness of phenomena, the illusory nature of the world, and the ineffable, unobstructed, empty, open nature of the ultimate reality free from all conceptual fabrication. Actual practice and meditation on the ultimate nature will be discussed below under the perfection of wisdom.

As the practice of the third type of patience, a bodhisattva endures to know the truth through a rational and analytical approach instead of taking things for granted. Critical inquiry and analyses, such as in the aforementioned example about a person hitting another with a weapon, helps one overcome mistaken assumptions and inherent bias and see the true nature of things. It is through knowing the true nature of reality that one can appreciate the nexus of causes and conditions and thus tolerate the harms and problems in life as well as transcend to a higher level of insight. Thus, a practitioner takes up the third type of patience by having the unrelenting commitment to and confidence in the bodhisattva path of wisdom and compassion. A bodhisattva remains steadfast in upholding compassion to help all sentient beings and firm in his or her understanding and realization of the way things are. With this, a bodhisattva is then never tired of engaging in selfless service and never affected by the challenges, misfortunes, and vagaries of life.

Śāntideva also advises practitioners, toward the end of the sixth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', to practice patience and tolerance toward sentient beings, including harm doers, because they serve as agents for spiritual transformation. Without beings, one cannot possibly pursue the Mahāyāna path of compassion and altruism. Just as the Buddha helps one accumulate merit as an object of veneration, sentient beings also help one accrue merit through patience, giving, etc. Moreover, it is in pleasing sentient beings that we find the best way to please buddhas, who wholeheartedly cherish them. Getting angry at beings or harming them would displease the buddhas. Thus, it is very important for a follower of the Buddha to love and respect sentient beings in order to truly remain faithful to the Buddha. Moreover, even sentient beings possess buddha-nature and are worthy of veneration, not disdain and disrespect. Adopting such outlooks, values, and reasoning, the follower of the bodhisattva path practices tolerance and patience.

<h5>Diligence (''vīrya'', བརྩོན་འགྲུས་)</h5>
The fourth perfection is the perfection of enthusiasm, zeal, effort, or diligence. In Buddhist philosophy, it is defined as zeal or joy in virtuous actions, and it serves as an antidote to indolence. Śāntideva remarks that just as there cannot be motion without wind, there cannot be merit without diligence. The cultivation of diligence entails giving up the three kinds of indolence:
#Laziness, which is to be in the state of lethargy, sloth, and boredom
#Despondency, which is to be inactive through diffidence and lack of energy
#Negative addiction, which is to be preoccupied by unwholesome things

Wholesome diligence functions as an antidote to these three kinds of indolence. In order to overcome the first type of indolence, which involves being lazy, lethargic, and uninterested, one must cultivate interest, enthusiasm, and motivation in wholesome activities. A person on the bodhisattva path must be physically and mentally agile, enterprising, and diligent. To do so, one must develop some degree of remorse for the current situation in samsara and aim to reach a higher state of being. The Tibetan Buddhist practice of the four points of mind turning, including reflecting on the rarity and preciousness of humanhood, the impermanence of life, the efficacy of the law of cause and effect, and the flaws of the cycle of existence can help generate enthusiasm and motivation to seek full enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings.

A practitioner must reflect on the fortunate state of having obtained the precious and rare human birth and of having good health and all other necessary circumstances for seeking the higher goal of enlightenment. Reflecting on the precious and rare nature of such an opportunity to seek enlightenment, a practitioner must immediately plunge into the practice of the bodhisattva path. If one does not do so, one must realize that such fortunate human existence is fragile and bound to change any time. One must meditate on the impermanence and fragility of life and on how death can happen anytime. Thus, one must not waste one's precious life in laziness, slumber, or distraction. Śāntideva warns against such waste in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.
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In addition to fostering enthusiasm and effort through reflection on the precious nature of humanhood and impermanence, a practitioner can also reflect on the law of cause and effect. One must realize that happy, desirable results come about only by investing in the necessary causes of happiness and that suffering arises from engaging in the causes of suffering. Fully aware of the infallible nature of cause and effect, a practitioner must enthusiastically engage in wholesome actions and work hard in order to reap a good result. A practitioner must work hard to abandon negative actions in order to escape from suffering and reach nirvana. Similarly, a practitioner must contemplate the flaws of rebirth in samsara, such as not getting what is desirable, getting what is not desirable, encountering those one dislikes, and separation from those one likes. Beings in the lower realms of existence are afflicted by multiple forms of suffering, beings in happy realms suffer from inevitable change in situations, and all beings suffer from the stress of the constant pursuit of happiness.

In the traditional reflection on the faults of the cycle of existence, a practitioner meditates on the suffering of heat and cold in the hell realms, hunger and thirst among hungry ghosts, exploitation and predation in the animal kingdom, illness and old age among humans, strife and warfare among demigods, and death and downfall in the celestial realms. These reflections and harsh life experiences help in engendering motivation and zeal to engage in virtuous actions and seek the higher goal of enlightenment. A practitioner must also reflect on the bodhisattva oath taken earlier to place all sentient beings in buddhahood and now put forth effort to walk the talk.

Having overcome the first problem of laziness and sloth through such reflections, a practitioner must work on the second problem of diffidence and despondency. A practitioner must think of the endless cycle of hard work ordinary beings undertake even for petty worldly benefit and compare that with the noble work a bodhisattva has to undertake for the greater benefit of the world. Thinking of this noble cause and the limited effort and time required for it, one must feel emboldened and encouraged to engage in bodhisattva practice. In the traditional Buddhist worldview, one has gone through immeasurable suffering in countless lifetimes, resulting in no real benefit. The hard work and sweat on the bodhisattva path, however, is a limited and small pain which can bring forth a greater long-term benefit, like the pain of an incision to cure a serious illness.

Moreover, in order to overcome a lack of confidence, a practitioner must realize that even an insect, having buddha-nature as its nature, can reach buddhahood through effort. What need, then, to mention a human being who has the rational and emotional capacity to attain enlightenment. If one is afraid of the difficult bodhisattva practices such as giving one's body and limbs, such practices become easy and enjoyable with practice and habituation. The Buddha prohibits a bodhisattva from undertaking any endeavor beyond his or her mental capacity.

Thus, the bodhisattva path, if one is well-equipped with wisdom and compassion, is not a difficult task but a very pleasant and enjoyable enterprise. Śāntideva writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Sin has been abandoned, thus there is no pain;
Through having wisdom there is no more sorrow. (7.27ab)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref>
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=What can sadden those who have compassion,
Who remain within saṃsāra for the sake of beings? (7.28cd)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref>
}}
Furthermore, Śāntideva asks: "Which thoughtful person riding the horse of bodhicitta and having no fatigue would become despondent in going from joy to joy?"<ref>''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' 7.30. See also Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref> He recommends the four forces of interest, steadfastness, joy, and relinquishment. One must cultivate the strong interest and wish to engage in virtuous actions, abandon negative actions, eliminate the suffering of sentient beings, and create happiness for all sentient beings. Such an interest is generated by thinking of the benefits of virtuous actions and the demerits of nonvirtuous actions. Once one has found such a strong interest and wish, one must remain firm and steadfast in the pursuit of happiness for all beings. One must maintain unwavering confidence and pride in the endeavor and not allow dejection and fatigue to set in. Taking up the challenge to defeat the negative emotions, a practitioner should not only remain steadfast but delve into the bodhisattva practice with joy and enthusiasm, like an elephant rushing to a lake in the midday heat or a gamer indulging in the game. Should a practitioner encounter insurmountable challenges or hardship or suffer from fatigue, then he or she should relinquish the specific task for the time being to be resumed at a later time when conditions are better.

Thus, a bodhisattva must adopt skill-in-means and be very strategic in terms of the appropriate investment of time and effort. Śāntideva also recommends the two strengths of earnestness and control to enhance the bodhisattva zeal. A bodhisattva must seek his or her objective with earnestness and immediate application. Just as a warrior who drops his sword in battle would pick it up promptly, and just as a young man would react quickly if a snake lands on his lap, a bodhisattva must act swiftly to achieve the goal. Similarly, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must have a sense of control and power over things. Feeling confident and empowered and remaining very agile and aware, a bodhisattva must engage in the practice with confidence and flair, like a lion in the midst of foxes, and with nimbleness and full control over one's body and mind, just like a wind controlling the movement of a piece of cotton on a branch.

A major hindrance to enthusiasm and diligence in bodhisattva practice is attachment to and engagement in worldly and negative distractions. Śāntideva warns the practitioner:
{{PullBcaVerses|7.15}}
Knowing that if one is careless, negative tendencies and distractions spread fast like poison in the blood stream, one must exercise great caution and mindfulness in fighting negative temptations and distractions. Being mindful of one's practice and reprimanding oneself for even minor lapses, one must guard one's mind and awareness from defiling emotions, just like one protects one's eyes from dust. A practitioner must diligently practice the bodhisattva path by eschewing attachment to all negative activities.

<h5>Meditation (''dhyāna'', བསམ་གཏན་)</h5>
Meditative concentration is the fifth perfection. It is defined in the classical texts as the state of the mind remaining focused without any distraction. It is the mental ability to remain focused, calm, and unperturbed, and it serves as an antidote to distraction. As a distracted mind is very prone to afflictive emotions and ineffective in accomplishing any tasks, it is very important to develop the meditative concentration of the mind. Only when the mind is focused and has attained calm abiding can it effectively develop insight into the nature of reality and thereby eliminate the afflictive emotions and negative thoughts. Śāntideva puts this clearly in the following verse, which is very frequently quoted:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.4}}
The process of pursuing meditative concentration normally begins with practice in solitude, where one's body is free from the frenzy of the world and one's mind is free from mental preoccupation. Śāntideva advises:
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For a beginner working on cultivating meditative concentration, the Buddhist masters advise practitioners to find solitude without disturbance and distraction and to take up solitary retreat. Whether one finds a brief period in one's daily schedule or finds free time to undertake a long retreat lasting weeks, months, or years, the main objective should be to settle the distracted mind and attain mental concentration or calm abiding. As the main reason for not finding time for such solitary practice and cultivating calm abiding is one's preoccupation with worldly affairs, a practitioner is first instructed to give up desire for worldly life, including attachment to people and pursuit of wealth, fame, and power. Masters such as Śāntideva present a compelling account of the futility of worldly endeavors, including relationships and business, and the stress, disappointment, and pain they lead to in this life and the many sufferings in future lifetimes. Talking about people, relationships, and property, Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.10}}
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{{PullBcaVerses|8.79}}
Śāntideva sums up the flaws of worldly desire in this way:
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With such instructions and admonitions, a practitioner is made to reflect on the worthlessness of the worldly pursuit of wealth, fame, power, and relationships and how they often fuel more greed and stress, creating a vicious cycle of pain and suffering. Thus, a person on the bodhisattva path is encouraged to seek something more meaningful and fulfilling. A practitioner who wishes to attain calm abiding through meditation must curb greed, have contentment, and devote time to meditation.

The actual practice of meditative concentration to develop calm abiding forms a fundamental Buddhist practice, and there are many different meditation traditions and techniques for carrying out the practice. The most common classical procedure is the nine-step meditation technique for establishing calm abiding. Below is a table showing the nine steps in three stages, with the five defects to be removed, the eight antidotes and six powers to be adopted, the four phases of contemplation, and the five signs of progress, as explained by the nineteenth-century Tibetan polymath Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912) based on his ''Gateway to the Way of the Learned'' (མཁས་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པའི་སྒོ།) and ''Heart of Luminosity: The General Meaning of the Essence of the Secret'' (གསང་བ་སྙིང་པོའི་སྤྱི་དོན་འོད་གསལ་སྙིང་པོ།).

[[File:Chart for Karma practice piece.png|900px|class=w-100 m-0 rounded-xl shadow|]]

The detailed instructions for the development of calm abiding can be found in many different texts and meditation traditions. All of them start with physical posture, the most common being the Vairocana posture with seven features, including (1) crossed leg, (2) straight back, (3) slightly tilted neck, (4) open shoulders, (5) eyes on the nose tip, (6) tongue touching upper palate with lips just touching each other, and (7) hands on the lap. Being comfortably and firmly seated to give stability to the body, one may carry out the breathing exercise to clear one's breath. With the body, breath, and the mind calm and clear, one then starts focusing on an object, whether it is an external object like an image or a twig, an internal object like bodily sensations or the breath, or an imaginary object like a deity or mantra one has visualized.

To kick off such a practice, one must overcome the obstacles of indolence and forgetfulness. A person indulging in laziness or forgetful of the instructions for meditation cannot even start the process. Thus, at this initial phase of preparing meditation, one must have strong faith, interest, enthusiasm, and willingness to undertake meditative concentration. One can develop these qualities by studying and learning about the benefits of meditation. Having overcome the obstacles, one starts the practice of meditation with the initial focus, the first of the nine steps.

The practitioner continues to focus on the object with care and exertion. As the beginner's mind will forget the object and get distracted, one uses mindfulness and reflection to continue the focus. When the mind is distracted from the object, one must bring it back and repeat the focus with introspection and concerted effort. Like a wild horse being controlled with bridle and reins, the mind should be trained using mindfulness and introspection. One must overcome not only the obstacle of distraction but also torpor and sleepiness. As one maintains and repeats the focus, one will notice the mind moving very fast and flying off in a flash. This is the first sign of progress called "the experience of motion." At this point, the mind is like a waterfall, restless and nonstop.

As one persists in focusing on the object using the tools of mindfulness and introspection, the mind begins to become calm and tamed. This is the second sign of progress called "the experience of attainment." Here, the mind is like a stream on a steep slope, moving constantly but at a slower pace. As one persists in taming the mind, the obstacles of distraction and torpor also subside, but one would still need to put forth effort to maintain the focus. Using reflection, mindfulness, and introspection, one must continue to focus and tame the mind. This will lead to the mind becoming very pacified and to the third sign of progress called "the experience of becoming accustomed." At this stage, the mind is like a river on the plains, seemingly still while looking from afar but still moving with strong currents. It is like a bee trapped in a vase, generally in one place but still with a lot of movement. The focus is sometimes interrupted, but one must put forth effort to get back to meditative concentration.

With sustained effort, one nears the final phase of meditative concentration when the mind is thoroughly pacified and one can focus without any interruption and exertion. At this stage, showing exertion and making a contrived effort are obstacles. Thus, one remains in single-pointed concentration without any contrived effort. One would have the fourth sign of progress called "the experience of stability." Now, the mind is like an ocean, calm and unshaken in the core but with some motion on the surface. As one remains in such a state with mental equanimity and becomes very familiar with it, one attains meditative equipoise, and one sees the fifth and final sign of progress called "the experience of the perfection of meditation." The mind remains undisturbed in all situations, like a mountain which is not shaken by the winds. There is no effort required to maintain the meditative equipoise, and the practitioner enjoys extreme bliss and agility of the body and mind.

Different schools teach different methods of developing single-pointed concentration, or calm abiding. A very well-known practice for calm abiding today is the mindfulness of the body, which is popularly known as a body scan. Here, one focuses on the sensations in the body, either gradually from the crown of the head to the heels or on a specific part of the body, to develop concentration. Another common practice is the concentration on one's breath, including inhalation and exhalation. There are many techniques of focusing on the breath as one exhales and inhales. Many traditions also use external objects such as images, twigs, pebbles, leaves, etc. as an object of concentration. In some Tibetan Buddhist traditions, a meditator trains first by using ordinary objects such as leaves and twigs and then meditates on the image of the Buddha as a whole or on parts of the image in sequence. One can also visualize a letter or a deity figure as an object of meditation for calm abiding. In the Vajrayāna tradition, it is very common to use a representation of a deity, either in the form of physical artwork or as a mental picture of a deity or mantra, in order to develop concentration and calm abiding. The process of the nine-step meditation to attain calm abiding is also represented in art, with a monkey symbolizing the distracting mode of the mind and an elephant symbolizing the sinking mode of the mind.

{{InlineImage
|float=right
|img=Nine Stages of Shamatha Practice.png
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|caption=This thangka depicts the nine progressive stages of mental development. Source: [https://enlightenmentthangka.com/blogs/thangka/nine-stages-of-samatha-meditation?_pos=1&_sid=fbf1cb8ea&_ss=r Enlightenmentthangka.com]
}}

When one attains single-pointed concentration, the mind becomes pliable for spiritual transformation. This state of mind, considered to be equivalent to the mental state of beings in the highest desire realm, is the lowest form of concentration a practitioner needs to cultivate high spiritual realization and qualities. When such a state of mind is further sharpened, one acquires the mental states of the first, second, third, and fourth meditative absorptions with increasing levels of bliss, lucidity, pliability, and efficacy for spiritual transformation. These four states of meditative concentration are considered equivalent to the mental state of the four levels of the form realm in the psychophysical Buddhist cosmology. The power of concentration increases further with deeper levels of absorption. However, in the extreme form of quietest mental state in a sentient being associated with the highest formless realm of worldly existence, the mind is too deeply absorbed in meditation, rendering it too inactive and unviable for spiritual transformation.

Meditative concentration is thus divided according to the different levels of mental concentration. It is also classified into mundane meditative concentration and supramundane meditative concentration. If the meditative concentration is merely a calm state of the mind of a worldly person without the element of wisdom which discerns the nature of reality or truth, it is considered to be worldly meditative concentration. Such a state of the mind may be blissful and lucid, but it is bound to eventually return to an ordinary state of distraction and torpor. When the meditative concentration has the nature of reality as its object, it becomes an insight into truth and thus acquires the power of liberation. Such meditative concentration with truth as its object is a transcendent realization of truth and thus is considered to be the supramundane meditative concentration.

Meditative concentration is also divided into three categories:
#Meditative concentration abiding in peace in this life
#Meditative concentration which attains spiritual qualities
#Meditative concentration which works for sentient beings

The first type of meditative concentration is the mundane state of calm abiding. This comes with a blissful and peaceful experience for the meditator but is not instrumental in bringing about liberation, as it lacks insight. The second type is a meditative concentration informed by values and methods which have soteriological efficacy or some additional power to generate supernatural qualities. This type of meditative concentration can lead to supernatural powers such as clairvoyance or astral travel as well as higher qualities of enlightenment. The third type of meditative concentration is used to help sentient beings. The power of concentration helps one to perform miracles and create things which would benefit sentient beings.

The types of meditative concentration promoted in the Mahāyāna tradition are the second and third types, and the perfection of meditative concentration involves the application of a meditative concentration to the realization of the ultimate nature of things. Thus, it is a nonconceptual, open, and blissful cognitive equipoise which is free from all conceptual constructions and mental fabrications.

<h5>Wisdom (''prajñā'', ཤེས་རབ་)</h5>
The last and the most important of the six perfections is the perfection of wisdom. The sūtras on the perfection of wisdom claim that without wisdom none of the five other practices can really become a genuine practice of perfection. Thus, Śāntideva claims that the other perfections are means to the end, which is wisdom, for only wisdom can ultimately eliminate the root of suffering.
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Wisdom, in general, is the capacity for critical thinking and discernment of the way things are. Wisdom refers to the acute sense of judgement and sagacity when juxtaposed with compassion. However, in the specific context of Buddhist study and practice, wisdom refers to the understanding and realization of truth and the nature of reality, such as the knowledge and experience of nonself, impermanence, interdependence, and the emptiness of self-existence. In the Mahāyāna, the perfection of wisdom pertains to the knowledge and realization of the highest truth, the ultimate nature of things, whatever that is conceived to be in the particular tradition.

The Madhyamaka, or the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna and his followers, such as Candrakīrti, Śāntideva, Śāntarakṣita and Atiśa—the philosophical system with which the Tibetan Buddhist tradition of bodhicitta practice is associated—expounds the perfection of wisdom as the knowledge of the emptiness of all phenomena. Wisdom, in this system, refers to the penetrating insight into the ultimate truth, which is defined as emptiness free from all extremes or fabrications. In their ultimate nature, things are neither existent, nor nonexistent, both, or neither. Ultimate nature is beyond production and cessation, birth and death, time and space, thoughts and words. Śāntideva elucidates this point in the following verse:
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The world exists only on a relative level as mere designations and conventions. On their ultimate level, everything is empty of their own being, and the perfection of wisdom is the knowledge of such emptiness. Such wisdom, then, is cultivated initially through study, then through contemplation, and eventually through meditation. Thus, wisdom is often classified into three categories:
#Wisdom through study
#Wisdom through reflection
#Wisdom through meditation

A practitioner starts the practice of the perfection of wisdom by studying and understanding the ultimate truth of emptiness. The classic texts of the Middle Way school, such as Nāgārjuna's ''Root Verses on the Middle Way'' (''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''), Candrakīrti's ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''), Śāntarakṣita's ''Ornament of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakālaṃkāra''), and Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra''), present numerous reductive and analytical arguments to establish the empty nature of all phenomena. Among the many arguments, the following five are known as the great reasoning of the Middle Way. They establish the emptiness of the causes, effects, both causes and effects, the nature of things, and of all aspects of phenomena.
#A vase is empty of true arising because it does not arise from itself, another, both, or nothing.
#A vase is empty of true production because neither an existent effect nor a nonexistent effect, both, or neither is produced.
#A vase is empty of true arising because it neither arises instantly nor arises gradually.
#A vase is empty of true nature because it is without the nature of one or many.
#A vase is empty of true nature because they are dependently originated.

A student of the Middle Way uses these and numerous other logical arguments and analyses to fully understand the emptiness of all things, including emptiness itself. Through persistent study and reflection, a practitioner gains a deep understanding and confidence in the nature of emptiness. With further reflection and familiarization, the practitioner develops a strong conviction that gradually turns into a direct experience and realization of emptiness—the true form of the perfection of wisdom.

Śāntideva's chapter on wisdom in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' presents the cultivation of wisdom through the common Buddhist practice of nonself and the four points of mindfulness.

<h5>Meditation on the Nonself of a Person</h5>
A person on the bodhisattva path must investigate the existence of the self, or "I," to which one is very attached. It is from the mistaken notion of the "I" that the notions of you, he, she, and they arise in contrast to this notion of "I." Such dualistic clinging leads to a like for oneself and what belongs to oneself and a dislike for others. This launches the cycle of attachment, aversion, and other afflictive emotions and actions. It is essential for a practitioner on the path to enlightenment to investigate the existence of the self in order to uproot the cause of samsara. Śāntideva provides the following instructions for such a reductive examination:
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Carrying out such analysis, a practitioner must thoroughly understand the absence of a self, or "I," in all beings. In his ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', Candrakīrti presents the sevenfold reasoning of the chariot to establish the emptiness of self. A chariot does not truly exist because it is not (1) identical, (2) heterogeneous, (3) possessive, (4) the located, (5) the locus, (6) the shape, or (7) the collection of the parts. The chariot is a mere label given to the assembly of the parts with a specific shape and a specific function. There is no real chariot other than the parts, and the parts do not exist other than their own parts. Similarly, a person is a mere designation given to the assembly of psycho-physical constituents in a specific structure performing a specific function. There is no real person, and all things are empty of a self or what belongs to a self. Śāntideva compares the person to a banana plant.
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Wandering beings, thus, resemble dreams,
And also the banana tree, if you examine well. (9.150ab)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 158.</ref>
}}
Using such a rigorous analytical approach, a seeker of the perfection of wisdom must study and thoroughly understand the absence or emptiness of the self. The knowledge of nonself is an indispensable and central component of the Buddhist path to enlightenment. In Śāntideva's work and in the Middle Way school in general, such analyses and knowledge is further extended to understand the emptiness of all phenomena through the practice of the four points of mindfulness.

<h4>Mindfulness of the Body</h4>
A practitioner establishes the emptiness of the body by mentally dismembering the body in search of the body that we assume to really exist and that we deeply cherish. Śāntideva instructs a practitioner to look into the parts of the body in order to realize the emptiness of the body. The body does not exist either identical to or different from the parts. The same applies to the parts. He writes:
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The contemplation on the body helps one overcome one of the strongest fetters in existence: the attachment to the body. A bodhisattva must strive to give up attachment to the body and make use of it for the benefit of all sentient beings.

<h4>Mindfulness of Sensation</h4>
Another serious fetter in life is the attachment to pleasure and enjoyable sensations. Sentient beings crave pleasure and indulge in vices for pleasure. They hate pain and engage in negative actions to avoid pain and suffering. Thus, a practitioner of the bodhisattva path must see the empty nature of pleasure and pain. Śāntideva helps the practitioner investigate the experience of pain and pleasure by looking at the cause, effect, and nature of sensation.
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When one examines the nature of sensation, one can see that pain and pleasure are subjective, relative, and impermanent. If pain truly exists, there cannot be pleasure and vice versa. Because they rise and disappear like an illusion, there is no real pain or pleasure. Sensation arises from the encounter of senses and sense objects, but in reality we cannot see such an encounter or contact. One which has already touched cannot come into touch, and one which has not touched cannot contact either. Without contact, there cannot be sensation. Similarly, there is no agent or person who can create and feel sensation. Śāntideva states:
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In this manner, the practitioner on the bodhisattva path must contemplate the empty nature of sensation and see all pain and pleasure to be like a magical illusion.

<h4>Mindfulness of the Mind</h4>
Just as there is no real painful or pleasant sensation and feeling, there is no real consciousness or mind. Śāntideva states:
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The mind plays the central role in the Buddhist spiritual system as the root cause and foundation of all things, so much so that Buddhism is often called a science of the mind or an art of mind training. The Buddha has claimed that the mind is the chief and everything is mind-made. In this respect, the knowledge of the emptiness of the mind is the most important form of wisdom. Through realizing the empty nature of the mind, one can realize the emptiness of all phenomena, as all phenomena have their base in the mind.

The meditation on the empty nature of the mind is one of the most important practices in Mahāyāna Buddhism, particularly in the Middle Way school, and there are many different methods and techniques for this meditation. One method is to examine the spatial location of the mind. Buddhist thinkers and mystics argue that this thing called the mind cannot be found within the body, without, or in between. Śāntideva remarks:
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In the Mahāyāna pith instructions on the emptiness of the mind, or what is known as mind-pointing instructions in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, the master instructs the disciple to search for the mind inside the body, outside the body, and in between. A practitioner is asked to investigate the spatial location of the mind, only to realize that the mind has no spatial existence or dimension. Similarly, the disciple is made to examine the shape, color, structure, or nature of the mind through an instruction called "the destruction of the mind's structure." Through this the practitioner realizes that the mind does not have concrete existence and is utterly empty of an independent existence.

Not only is the mind or consciousness not found anywhere or in any shape or form, it also does not arise, as it cannot arise before, after, or at the same time as its object. A consciousness has to be conscious of an object, but in reality it cannot be conscious of an object which exists before, after, or at the same time as the consciousness itself. Moreover, if the object that is cognized, such as the body, does not exist, how can the consciousness which cognizes exist, for they are dependent on each other.

In another very popular meditation on the empty nature of the mind, a practitioner examines the temporal existence of mind. The past mind does not exist because it has already ceased to exist, and the future mind cannot exist, as it is yet to be. There is no present mind to be found in any shape or color in between the past and the present. Thus, no mind can be found to truly exist if one carefully examines the case.

The meditation on the empty nature of the mind using different techniques forms the most sacred and powerful practice of the perfection of wisdom in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions. More detailed and personalized instructions, often in the form of oral transmissions, are normally sought from individual teachers. Thus, a sketch is presented here, but a practitioner must rely on a specific teacher for proper guidance in following traditional procedures.

<h4>Mindfulness of Phenomena</h4>
The fourth point of mindfulness is the emptiness of all phenomena. Using the same reductive analyses applied to the body, sensation, and mind, a practitioner meditates on the absence of the true existence of all phenomena. One can use the great reasonings of the Middle Way to cultivate the understanding of the empty nature of all phenomena or use some other arguments and methods. There are also many other techniques, particularly those belonging to the Vajrayāna tradition, such as completion stage practices, dream yoga, luminosity practice, and meditation on empty form in the Kālacakra, Mahāmudrā, and Dzogchen traditions, which are powerful methods to realize the emptiness of all phenomena.

The most common and persuasive method found in the literature of the Middle Way school to establish the emptiness of all phenomena is the reasoning of dependent origination. All phenomena lack self-existence because they are either dependently produced (e.g., a plant from a seed, soil, moisture, and heat) or dependently conceived (e.g., the concept "here" and "there"). Śāntideva aptly demonstrates this through the example of a parent and a child.
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He goes on to state that the mind which analyzes and the phenomena which it investigates are also mutually dependent and therefore in reality without true independent existence. Thus, just as the mind did not exist, all phenomena which it takes as its object also do not exist. They are assumed to exist based on convention.
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<h4>Freedom from All Fabrications</h4>
Using numerous logical arguments containing a rigorous reductive analysis, a practitioner contemplates how the body, sensation, mind, and, for that matter, all phenomena do not exist in real terms. The external world of matter is made up of atoms, and the internal world of consciousness is made up of moments of cognitive flashes and impulses. Yet, if one investigates the atoms and moments of consciousness using the reductive process of examination, they cannot be found to truly exist. In the same way, neither can any process of production, cessation, coming, going, etc. be found to exist. We assume everything to exist on a conventional level for transactional purposes, but nothing exists on the ultimate level when thoroughly examined. Not even "nothing" exists.

The initial focus of the meditation on emptiness should be to negate existence because sentient beings are fraught with the notion that things really exist and are either attached or averse to them. After clinging to things as real, they give rise to defiling emotions such as attachment and fear, which in turn leads to negative actions and suffering. Thus, the practitioners must put their initial emphasis on establishing that things are empty of inherent self-existence or real nature. Much of the logical procedures and meditation instructions focus on eliminating the notion of existence, establishing that all phenomena are empty of real existence, and revealing/concluding that all empirical experiences are like magical illusions and reflections in a mirror. They appear but are empty of real existence.

After one has negated the notion of existence and grasped the emptiness of things, it is also important to go beyond emptiness, for emptiness is also unreal and only a relative concept. How can there be nonexistence without existence? Just as there is no father without a child or here without there, emptiness is dependent on the nonempty. If the nonexistent does not exist, emptiness can't exist either. In this way, a practitioner drops both the notion of existence and nonexistence, being and nonbeing, is and is not, the nonempty and empty, production and nonproduction, etc.

In the final ontology of the Middle Way, one must reject any instances of a real existence, nonexistence, both, or neither. A practitioner must transcend all four mental fabrications of being, nonbeing, both and neither. Everything, including emptiness itself, is utterly empty and nonapprehensible, akin to the bare, clear openness of space. Only when the mind is free from fixation on a thing, non-thing, or neither does it naturally rest in its true state of peace, free from the slightest tension, stress, and apprehension. Only then can one effectively cut through the habitual propensities for self-love, attachment, hatred, stupidity, jealousy, etc.

It is said in ''The King of Meditation Absorption Sūtra'' (''Samādhirājasūtra''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=What is "existence" and "nonexistence" are both extremes; so are "purity" and "impurity" extremes. Therefore, abandoning the extremes of both, the wise surely should not abide even in the middle.<ref>''yod dang med ces bya ba gnyi ga mtha<i>'</i>''/ /''gtsang dang mi gtsang 'di yang mtha' yin te''/ /''de phyir gnyis ka'i mtha' ni rnam spangs nas''/ /''mkhas pa dbus la'ang gnas par yong mi byed''/ /. See ''Samādhirājasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos thams cad kyi rang bzhin mnyam pa nyid rnam par spros pa ting nge 'dzin gyi rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D127, mdo sde, vol. 55, da, fol. 27a. http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0127.</ref>
}}
In the ultimate meditation on wisdom, the practitioner immerses him or herself into a deep experience of emptiness with no sense of engagement or withdrawal, acceptance or rejection, likes or dislikes, pleasure or pain. During the postmeditation state, the practitioner is constantly aware of the illusory nature of things. Sustained practice of such meditation on emptiness and postmeditation awareness, Śāntideva points out, would not only help the person face the ups and downs of life with the same level of ease and equanimity but also induces an intense surge of compassion for the beings who are drowning in the sea of suffering. It inspires one to work evermore to free other beings who are caught in the prison of ignorance, mistakenly holding illusory and empty things to be real. Just as compassion for other beings leads to developing the wisdom to see things as they really are, wisdom and insight into the true nature of things helps enhance the vigor of compassion for all beings, thereby having wisdom and compassion mutually strengthen each other.
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Articles/History of Bodhicitta Teachings

2026-09-01T16:30:53Z

KPhuntsho:

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== The Origins of Bodhicitta ==
Tradition would have it that bodhicitta existed since time immemorial, as all buddhas must start their journey by becoming a bodhisattva and one can only do so by cultivating bodhicitta—the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. However, from a historical perspective, the term ''bodhicitta'' and the idea of taking all sentient beings to the state of full enlightenment only emerges with the rise of the Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE. There is no explicit mention of the term ''bodhicitta'' in the Buddhist canon preserved in the Pāli language, which most scholars consider to be the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures.

One can find in the Pāli canon, particularly in the section on past buddhas and the Jātaka tales, references to the historical Buddha generating the first thoughts to become a buddha in his former lifetimes. A good example is the ascetic Sumedha, one of the previous rebirths of the historical Buddha, taking the vow to seek perfect enlightenment for the first time in the presence of Buddha Dīpaṃkara, who confirms his success in the future through a prediction.<ref>See "Sumedha's Wish" and "The History of Buddha Dīpaṅkara" in ''Chronicles of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhavaṃsa'') under Minor Collections (''Khuddakanikāya''), at suttacentral.net, https://suttacentral.net/bv?view=normal&lang=en. Retrieved on May 5, 2025.</ref> Similarly, we also find the story of the Buddha as the brahmin Jotipāla, who takes the vow once again in the presence of Buddha Kāśyapa and receives a prediction from him that he will one day become a buddha. These stories, along with many others about the Buddha as a bodhisattva and his aim to attain perfect enlightenment, are considered by later Buddhist thinkers to exemplify bodhicitta. No doubt, these accounts in the early canonical works contributed to the development of the concept and practice of bodhicitta in later times.

It is notable, however, that the early Buddhist scriptures portray the commitment to seek the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as a privilege reserved for only a select few individuals of high capacity. They do not explicitly mention the wish to pursue enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, nor do they articulate the noble aim of leading all sentient beings to the state of perfect enlightenment. Rather, in these early teachings, the focus is on the pursuit of individual liberation. Although some exceptional beings become fully enlightened buddhas with great compassion for the world, the teachings do not highlight the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta. The compassionate intention to benefit the world becomes more explicit in later times.

The ''Mahāvastu'' (the "Great Event" or "Great Story"), a book from around the second century BCE belonging to the Lokottaravādin school, is perhaps one of the earliest texts to explicitly mention the term ''bodhicitta'' and to present both aspects of bodhicitta: the aim for perfect enlightenment and wish to do so out of compassion for sentient beings.<ref>Jeom-suk Park claims that this appearance of bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' is indeed the first appearance of the term. See Jeom-suk Park, "Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism," ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 51, no. 2 (March 2003): 139.</ref> The verses that mention bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' (MVU) read as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na dhyānahānir bhavate kadācit /
na bodhicittaṃ jahate kadācit // (MVU 2.382)<ref>See Emmanuel Fauré, ed., ''Mahāvastu-avādana'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 2.382, 2.392, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. The #2 here stands for part 2 of the ''Mahāvastu'' as it has been arranged on GRETIL.</ref>

Never is there any falling off in meditation, and never
does he abandon the thought of enlightenment.<ref>See J. J. Jones, trans., ''The Mahāvastu'' (London: Luzac, 1952), 2:344.</ref>
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na bodhicittaṃ vijahati so kadācit /
na khaṇḍaśīlo bhavati asaṃvṛto vā // (MVU 2.392)

Never does he give up the thought of enlightenment.
He never becomes corrupt of morals nor dissolute.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 2:351, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>
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The accounts of the previous lives of the historical Buddha and of Buddha Maitreya (the future Buddha) in the ''Mahāvastu'' chronicle how, for example, during the time of Buddha Suprabhāsa, the historical Buddha as the monk Abhiya and Maitreya as King Vairocana made the aspiration to reach the state of perfect enlightenment and did so out of compassion to benefit the world. Such an aspiration to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of the world gradually evolved into the concept of bodhicitta with the emergence of Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=yasmiṃ samaye satvā bhavensuḥ alenā atrāṇā aśaraṇā aparāyaṇā utsadalolā utsadadoṣā utsadamohā akuśalān dharmā samādāya vartensuḥ yobhūyena ca apāyapratipūrakā bhavensu tasmiṃ kāle tasmiṃ samaye aham anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyehaṃ // taṃ bhaveyaṃ bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukaṃpāya mahato janakāyasyārthāya hitāya sukhāya devānāṃ ca manuṣyāṇāṃ ca // (MVU 1.61)<ref>Fauré, ''Mahāvastu'', 1.161, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>

When beings come to be without refuge, support, protection, shelter, and succour, when they become characterized by fickleness, malice, and folly, when they live in accordance with wrong standards of conduct and generally go to crowd the worlds of woe, then may I awake to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. May I do so for the benefit and welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world, for the sake of the multitude, for the good of devas and men.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 1:50.</ref>
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The earliest Mahāyāna texts to discuss bodhicitta are said to be ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'' (''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'')<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_aSTAdazasAhasrikA-prajJApAramitA55-82.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>’</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fols. 1b1–286a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0012.</ref> and ''The Verses that Summarize the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'').<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8. See Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, ''Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 1.5, 5.5-8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ratnaguNasaMcayagAthA.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See also, ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fols. 1b1-19b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0013.</ref> These texts date to around 100 BCE and both contain the term ''bodhicitta'' and promote the concept of seeking enlightenment out of compassion and love for sentient beings.<ref>See ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'', 16.5 (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fol. 10a and ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 16b.</ref> The term ''bodhicitta'' appears at the beginning of ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', when Subhūti, through the blessings of the Buddha, submits to the Buddha that a bodhisattva "should train to not have pride in having bodhicitta, for such mind is not mind, but mind is by nature luminous."<ref>འདི་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་དེས་ཀྱང་རློམ་སེམས་སུ་མི་བགྱིད་པ་དེ་ལྟར་བསླབ་པར་བགྱིའོ། །དེ་ཅིའི་སླད་དུ་ཞེ་ན། འདི་ལྟར་སེམས་དེ་ནི་སེམས་མ་མཆིས་པ་སྟེ། སེམས་རང་བཞིན་ནི་འོད་གསལ་བ་ལགས་སོ།། ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 3a.</ref>

[[File:Text sample 1 for history of bodhicitta.jpg|900px|class=w-100 h-auto my-4 border rounded|]]

Similarly, in another passage from this same text, which Gareth Sparham calls the "Origin-Passage,"<ref>Gareth Sparham, "Indian Altruism: A Study of the Terms ''bodhicitta'' and ''cittotpāda''," ''Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15, no. 2 (1992): 224–42.</ref> Subhūti advises Śāriputra that a bodhisattva should not think of an action as hardship because one cannot serve the multitude of sentient beings with such a thought.<ref>See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'', fol. 16b. See Edward Conze, T''he Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary'' (Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation, 1975), 93.</ref> Only with the feeling of joy and love toward sentient beings, as though they were one’s father, mother, brother, or sister, will one be able to work for countless sentient beings and cultivate the intention to take all of these beings out of suffering for all times, just as one wishes to take oneself out of suffering for all times.

What, then, could have led to the development of such a noble and high ideal as bodhicitta? Dorji Wangchuk, in his authoritative work on bodhicitta entitled ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study on the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'', speculates that the rise of the bodhicitta concept may have been "driven by a psychological need of the Buddhists to compensate for the loss of the historical Buddha."<ref>See Dorji Wangchuk, ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 89.</ref> After the Buddha’s passing, some of his followers may have sought a substitute for the historical Buddha beyond the corpus of teachings and the Saṅgha community, who, as custodians of the Vinaya discipline that the Buddha designated as his representative, were entrusted with preserving his legacy after his departure. This may have been more common among those who chose to follow a hermetic and reclusive life outside the monastic institutions or sought a different understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and an alternative spiritual approach to what the mainstream monastic establishment offered. The Mahāyāna system is said to have emerged as a result of such a tendency,<ref>See Paul Williams, ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'' (London: Routledge, 2009).</ref> and it is likely that the need for a present buddha figure was strong among such people. In order to have a buddha, one must have a bodhisattva who aspires to become a buddha, and for that one needs to have the resolve or motivation to become a buddha. Thus, the concept of bodhicitta.

Gombrich and Wangchuk also argue that the Buddhist scriptures present the ultimate truth as being eternal and unchanging.<ref>Wangchuk, ''Resolve'', 78. Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'' (London: Routledge, 2006), 121.</ref> Because this truth remains immanent and eternal, individuals who achieve such realization emerge periodically throughout history. This understanding opens the possibility for other persons to attain the same enlightenment that the historical Buddha achieved. Thus, we see the emergence of a plurality of buddhas in early Buddhist teachings, which present six and twenty-four past buddhas as well as future buddhas such as Maitreya. With the rise of Mahāyāna, the pantheon of buddhas increases, and not only are there numerous past and future buddhas, one sees the idea of numerous present buddhas dwelling in different buddha realms situated in the vast expanse of the new Mahāyāna cosmology. With numerous buddhas as examples, cultivating bodhicitta to achieve buddhahood becomes a central theme.

Bodhicitta, as some scholars have argued, was also an expansion and improvement on the concept of ''prathamacitta'', or the initial resolve made by the Buddha to seek perfect enlightenment. This resolve is also presented as ''praṇidhāna'' (Pāli: ''paṇidhāna''), or the earnest aspiration to attain enlightenment. It is also thought to be an enhanced elucidation of ''adhyāśaya'' (Pāli: ''ajjhāsaya''), or the noble intention to earnestly seek enlightenment or benefit others. Some scholars considered ''adhyāśaya'' to be an abbreviation of ''anuttarāyāṃ samyaksambodhau cittam utpādayati'', or the generation of the thought of the unsurpassed perfect buddhahood. Many early Mahāyāna sources also contain the term ''cittotpāda''—the cultivation of the mind—which refers to the generation of the intention to seek perfect enlightenment. In later works, the terms ''bodhicitta'', ''cittotpāda'', and ''bodhicittotpāda'' came to be used synonymously, although they may have had different referents and connotations in the early period of Mahāyāna.

Whatever the main basis of the technical term ''bodhicitta'', the topic of bodhicitta was repeated and further elaborated in other sūtras belonging to the perfection of wisdom class and numerous other Mahāyāna sūtras that emerged in the subsequent centuries. The main sūtras containing the full-blown teachings on bodhicitta include ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra'') in the ''Avataṃsaka'' collection, ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''), ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' (''Sāgaramatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), ''The Questions of Ugraḥ Sūtra'' (''Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra''), ''The Questions of Vīradatta'' (''Vīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'' (''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''), and ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'' (''Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra''), to mention a few. In these sūtras, we see the development of the concept of bodhicitta along with the notions of compassion and wisdom. In many sources, such as ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' and ''The Basket of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisatvapiṭaka''), bodhicitta also refers to the ultimate nature of things or the luminous nature of the mind, which Wangchuk categorizes as ontological bodhicitta.

Besides the numerous canonical Mahāyāna sūtras that discuss and promote bodhicitta, we also see the rise of commentarial literature which deals with the theory and practice of bodhicitta. The foremost champion of the Mahāyāna teachings that included the concept of bodhicitta was Nāgārjuna, who lived roughly between 150 to 250 CE. In his ''Praise of the Diamond Mind'' (''Cittavajrastava'') and ''Praise of Dharmadhātu'' (''Dharmadhātustava''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Cittavajrastava'' (''Sems kyi rdo rje bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1121, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 69b4–70a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1121, and ''Dharmadhātustava'' (''Chos kyi dbyings su bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1118, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 1.63b5–67b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1118.</ref> Nāgārjuna uses the term ''bodhicitta'' to refer to the nature of mind and ultimate reality. However, in ''The Commentary on Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna, he presents bodhicitta as "the thought motivated by great compassion."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེས་བརླན་པའི་སེམས་ཀྱིས་ནི། །འབད་པས་བསྒོམ་པར་བྱ་བ་ཡིན། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittavivaraṇa'' (''Byang chub sems kyi 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1800, rgyud, vol. 35, ngi, fol. 38b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1800.</ref> This, in later times, came to be called ''relative bodhicitta''. In his ''Compendium of Sūtras'' (''Sūtrasamuccaya''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' (''Mdo kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3934, dbu ma, vol. 110, ki, fols. 141b1–215a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3934.</ref> Nāgārjuna presents numerous citations from sūtras to illustrate the rarity and importance of many aspects of Mahāyāna practice, including the supreme thought of awakening, or bodhicitta. Another text on how to take the vow of bodhicitta entitled ''The Ritual for Generating Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādavidhi''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi'' (''Byang chub tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga''), in Derge Tengyur D3966, dbu ma, vol. 112, gi, fols. 237a4–239a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3966.</ref> which contains some detail on the bodhisattva aspirations, is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The Chinese tradition also ascribes to Nāgārjuna a text called ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'' (''Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun''),<ref>For an English translation of this text, see Minoru Kiyota, trans., "The Bodhicitta Śāstra," in ''Esoteric Texts'' (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2015), 103–29.</ref> a tantric text which contains the concept of bodhicitta both as the altruistic mind to take all beings to perfect enlightenment and as the ultimate nature of the mind, or buddha-nature. There is no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of this text.

However, the text attributed to Nāgārjuna which explicitly discusses bodhicitta is his discourse to his royal disciple, claimed to be a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty who ruled in the Deccan plateau in the second century. In fact, Nāgārjuna wrote two homilies, but his ''Epistle to a Friend'' (''suhṛllekhaḥ''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''suhṛllekhaḥ'' (''bshes pa'i spring yig''), in Derge Tengyur D4182,spring yig, vol. 173, nge, fols. 40b4–46b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4182.</ref> does not discuss bodhicitta as does his other work, ''The Precious Garland'' (''Ratnavāli'').<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref> This work discusses bodhicitta, the bodhisattva practices, the stages on the bodhisattva path, and the bodhisattva goal.

In addition to these texts, the Tibetan Tengyur also contains several aspirational prayers for bodhisattva practice that are attributed to Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna’s teachings on bodhicitta, which tradition claims he received from Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom, was passed down mainly through the adherents of the Middle Way school that he initiated. This tradition came to be known as the Profound View tradition and was espoused and propagated by many Buddhist masters from famous universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.

Another famous lineage of bodhicitta teachings known as the Vast Conduct tradition was passed down from Asaṅga (fourth century), who is said to have received the teachings from Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to this tradition, Asaṅga propitiated Maitreya for twelve long years without receiving a vision of Maitreya, even in a dream. Disappointed, Asaṅga gives up the practice of propitiation and leaves his hermitage when he encounters a wretched bitch in agony as her rotting hind is being consumed by maggots. Out of intense compassion, Asaṅga feeds a bit of his own flesh to the dog and uses his tongue to take out the maggots. Disgusted, he does so with closed eyes, but his tongue touches the ground instead of the dog, and Lo, as he opens his eyes, he sees before him Maitreya with his sublime aura. "You have no compassion," Asaṅga complains to Maitreya for not even showing up in his dream, although he worshiped Maitreya for a dozen years. Maitreya tells Asaṅga that he has been near Asaṅga all along but Asaṅga could not see him. Having removed some karmic obscurations after a long retreat, Asaṅga could see Maitreya as a wretched dog. Then, as compassion for the dog stirred within him, Asaṅga removed the obscurations in his mind, making him able to see the divine figure of Maitreya. Maitreya asked Asaṅga to carry him on his shoulder and ask people what they could see. Most people in the town saw nothing, but an old woman saw him carrying a miserable bitch. Subsequently, Maitreya is said to have taken Asaṅga miraculously to Tuṣita Heaven and to have given him the teachings on Maitreya's five works. The three longer treatises of these five works—namely, ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' (''Abhisamayālaṃkāra''), ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), and ''The Ultimate Continuum of Mahāyāna'' (''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'')—varyingly discuss the concept of bodhicitta as an altruistic thought of enlightenment or the nature of one's mind.

In ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', bodhicitta is discussed as the first of the seventy topics related to the Buddhist ground, path, and fruition. We find in this book a very clear definition of bodhicitta, although it uses the term ''cittotpāda''.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=''Cittotpāda'' is the wish to attain the perfect full enlightenment for the sake of others.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་གཞན་དོན་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་རྫོགས་པའི་བྱང་ཆུབ་འདོད། ། Maitreya, ''Abhisamayālaṃkāra'' (''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3786, vol. 80, sher phyin, ka, fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3786.</ref>
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This verse remains the most concise and popular definition of bodhicitta. The text also breaks down bodhicitta into twenty-two types using similes and aligns them to the progression of the bodhisattva path. This same concept is further elaborated in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), in which a whole chapter is dedicated to discussing bodhicitta.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshigs le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, vol. 123, sems tsam, phi, fols. 1a1–39a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref> These two texts by Maitreya and the commentaries on them contain the most detailed theoretical discussions on bodhicitta. In ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', we find not only discussions on relative bodhicitta (i.e., the altruistic thought of enlightenment) but also on ultimate bodhicitta, which is the pristine wisdom discerning the ultimate nature of things.

Asaṅga elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta through his own ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi''), which is a part of his larger work entitled ''The Stages of Yoga Practice'' (''Yogācārabhūmi''). In this work, he points out that bodhicitta has two specific objects.
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|quote-text=Therefore, the cultivation of the mind [of enlightenment] aims at enlightenment and also at the welfare of sentient beings.<ref>Asaṅga, ''Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ'' (''Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa las byang chub sems dpa'i sa''), in Derge Tengyur D4037, vol. 129, sems tsam, wi, fol. 7b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4037.</ref>
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It is clear from this statement that Asaṅga is commenting on the definition of bodhicitta provided by Maitreya in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and also in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''. Both Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' and Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' also present the causes and conditions for cultivating bodhicitta. The latter became the main source for the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow in the Vast Conduct tradition. Passed down through Asaṅga, this line of transmission for taking the bodhisattva vow became frequently, though not exclusively, associated with the Mind Only/Yoga Practice school of Mahāyāna. The tradition later became known as the Vast Conduct tradition and was propagated by some of the eminent teachers of bodhicitta.

Besides Nāgārjuna and Asaṅga, the Tibetan tradition also includes Aśvaghoṣa among the early proponents of bodhicitta. Aśvaghoṣa, who is generally believed to have lived sometime within the first two centuries of the common era, was an acclaimed Buddhist poet, dramatist, and the author of poetic works such as ''The Acts of the Buddha'' (''Buddhacarita''), ''Beautiful Nanda'' (''Saundarananda''), and ''The Story of Śāriputra'' (''Śāriputraprakaraṇa''). The Chinese tradition ascribes ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'' (''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra'', ''Dasheng qixin lun'') to Aśvaghoṣa, although modern scholars contest this attribution. The Tibetan Tengyur canon contains two works on relative and ultimate bodhicitta that are considered to be by Aśvaghoṣa,<ref>Aśvaghoṣa, ''Saṃvṛtibodhicittabhāvanopadeśavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge pad+ma spungs pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3911, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 13b4–15a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3911, and ''Paramārthabodhicittabhāvanākramavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Don dam pa byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge rin po che'i sgron ma zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3912, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 15a6–16b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3912.</ref> but there is no known record of the transmission of teachings on bodhicitta from Aśvaghoṣa.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings in India and Beyond ==
It is not clear when the names given to the two traditions of Mahāyāna teachings—the Vast Conduct tradition and the Profound View tradition—were introduced, and the names appear to have undergone different phases. However, written records clearly point to the actual teachings on bodhicitta being passed down through generations of Nāgārjuna's and Asaṅga's followers. For the Profound View school, after Nāgārjuna, his disciple Āryadeva promoted bodhicitta in his writings, particularly in ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yogic Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'').<ref>Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'' (''Bstan bcos bzhi brgya pa zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3846, vol. 97, dbu ma, tsha, fols. 1a1–18a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> "The cultivation of the initial thought of enlightenment," he claimed, "outshines even the merit which can make all beings on earth universal monarchs."<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་སེམས་དང་པོ། །ས་སྟེངས་སྐྱེ་བོ་ཐམས་ཅད་ནི། །འཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བ་ཉིད་འགྱུར་བ། །དེ་དག་བསོད་ནམས་ལས་ཁྱད་འཕགས། ། Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'', fol. 6a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> Similarly, Bhāvaviveka (ca. 500–570 CE) composed his ''Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā''), devoting the opening chapter to the topic of bodhicitta. In it he writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Bodhicitta is the seed of buddhas
Adorned with loving-kindness,
Compassion and knowledge.
The wise shall not abandon it.<ref>བྱམས་པ་དང་ནི་སྙིང་རྗེ་དང་། །ཤེས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྒྱན་པ་ཡི། །སངས་རྒྱས་ས་བོན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Bhāvaviveka, ''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā'' (''Dbu ma'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3855, vol. 98, dbu ma, dza, fols. 2a–2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3855.</ref>
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Candrakīrti, the author of ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''),<ref>Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, vol. 102, dbu ma, 'a, fols. 201b1–219a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta in the context of the Mahāyāna path, particularly as understood in the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna. Although Candrakīrti had issues with Bhāvaviveka on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s logical procedures to establish the ultimate truth, they shared the same zest for underscoring the importance of bodhicitta on the bodhisattva path to perfect enlightenment. Candrakīrti organized his famous work using the ten stages of the bodhisattva path and the different levels of bodhicitta. Right at the outset of the work, he declares that bodhicitta, compassion, and the understanding of nonduality are the causes of bodhisattvas.

The most influential champion of bodhicitta teachings in India, however, was undoubtedly Śāntideva, the author of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'')<ref>Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fols. 1a1–40a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> and ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'').<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 3a2–194b52, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. See also the verse summary: ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 1a1–3a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref> Śāntideva probably lived around the beginning of the eighth century CE and was likely born in North India, although we have no evidence or records from his time. Most of what we know about him comes from accounts of his life written long after his time by faithful followers. Like the Buddha, he is said to have been born as a prince in North India but to have renounced his kingdom to pursue a spiritual career through the guidance of his tutelary deity Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom. Śāntideva is said to have reached a high level of erudition and spiritual enlightenment through Mañjuśrī’s blessings, although, outwardly, he appeared as a lazy monk, indulging in eating, sleeping, and relieving himself, thus earning him the nickname Busuku.

As the story goes, it was to mock his indolence and to shame him that his peers persuaded Śāntideva to give a public sermon. Śāntideva agreed and is said to have miraculously climbed on the unreasonably high throne they purposely set up to mock him. Śāntideva then asked the congregation whether they wanted an exposition of a text that already existed or something new. They asked for a new teaching, resulting in Śāntideva's delivery of the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'', or ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva is said to have levitated into the sky as he recited the verse "When existence and nonexistence do not remain before the mind, as there is no other aspect, the mind comes to rest without any grasping."<ref>གང་ཚེ་དངོས་དང་དངོས་མེད་དག ། བློ་ཡི་མདུན་ན་མི་གནས་པ། །དེ་ཚེ་རྣམ་པ་གཞན་མེད་པས། །དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི། ། Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 32a.4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> He rose higher and higher until he disappeared, his voice still being heard. The disappearance into sky could be understood as an allegory for the highest experience of transcendence and emptiness of all conceptual thoughts in Śāntideva’s philosophical system. However, an old manuscript recently discovered in Drepung Monastery states that Śāntideva’s reputation soared after his recitation, resulting in much veneration and offering. And Śāntideva is said to have left Nālandā to avoid the distraction entailed by such attention.<ref>Anonymous, ''Spyod 'jug gi bsdus don dang slob dpon zhi ba lha'i lo rgyus'', in Bka' gdams gsung 'bum phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, Par gzhi dang po (Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), 6:9–14, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD153536_DD71AE.</ref> Thus, Śāntideva's miraculous disappearance into the sky likely represents a later mythological embellishment of the actual circumstances surrounding his departure.

Whatever the case may be of its origins, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' has arguably become the most influential Buddhist work in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition on bodhicitta. In this work, Śāntideva lays out the practice of bodhicitta in ten chapters, making bold claims such as:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Those who wish to crush the many sorrows of existence,
Who wish to quell the pain of living beings,
Who wish to have experience of a myriad joys
Should never turn away from bodhichitta. (1.8)<ref>སྲིད་པའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་གཞོམ་འདོད་ཅིང་། །སེམས་ཅན་མི་བདེ་བསལ་བར་འདོད་པ་དང་། །བདེ་མང་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་སྤྱོད་པར་འདོད་པས་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྟག་ཏུ་གཏང་མི་བྱ། ། This translation belongs to the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 32. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 2a.4–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Since its propagation in the eighth century, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', combining highly inspirational exhortations and incisive philosophical arguments in an evocative poetic language, appears to have become the ''locus classicus'' for bodhicitta study and practice, used and cited by many writers after its appearance. It was Śāntideva who also explicitly presented the meditation on equality between self and others and exchange between self and others as a way to cultivate bodhicitta, as illustrated by the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Do not be downcast, but marshal all your powers;
Make an effort; be the master of yourself!
Practice the equality of self and other;
Practice the exchange of self and other. (7.16)<ref>སྒྱིད་ལུག་མེད་པར་དཔུང་ཚོགས་དང་། །ལྷུར་བླང་བདག་ཉིད་དབང་བྱ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་མཉམ་པ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་བརྗེ་བར་བགྱི། ། This translation is by the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 99. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 20b.5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Traditional Tibetan scholars claimed that over a hundred Indian commentaries were written on Śāntideva’s famous work, but there are only twelve Indian commentaries on it available today. They include works by Prajñākaramati, Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Kalyāṇadeva, Vairocanarakṣita, Vinītadeva, Vibhūticandra, Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, and Atiśa.

While ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' is an original work by Śantideva written in poetic verse, his other major work, ''The Compendium of Training'', is an anthology of citations of passages from sūtras interspersed with his own words. The two works most likely developed simultaneously in an iterative process, the latter being a compilation of sources for the former in verse. ''The Compendium of Training'' was condensed into a shorter verse summary, the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'', the gist of which is presented by the following verses.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions.
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them.<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྡོམ་པ་ནི། །རྒྱས་པར་ཐེག་པ་ཆེ་ལས་འབྱུང་། །གང་གིས་ལྟུང་བར་མི་འགྱུར་བའི། །གནད་ཀྱི་གནས་རྣམས་འདིར་རིག་བྱ། །བདག་གི་ལུས་དང་ལོངས་སྤྱོད་དང་། །དགེ་བ་དུས་གསུམ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས། །སེམས་ཅན་ཀུན་ལ་བཏང་བ་དང་། །དེ་བསྲུང་དག་པ་སྤེལ་བའོ། These are verses 3 and 4 of the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā''. For the Tibetan text, see ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 1b.3–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
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Despite being an important source for bodhisattva practice, there are only two commentarial works on ''The Compendium of Training''. One is an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and the other is a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa.

The study and practice of bodhicitta within the Profound View tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism reached unprecedented heights following the eighth century, largely through the contributions of Śāntideva. In addition to the masters who commented on Śāntideva’s works mentioned above, there were other masters such as Mañjuśrīmitra, Jñānagarbha, Jetāri, Puṇyaśrī, Dhanaśrī, Vimalamitra, Śāntarakṣita, and Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla, who took up the scholarship and practice on bodhicitta. Among them, Mañjuśrīmitra and Jñānagarbha focused on the exposition of ultimate bodhicitta, which discerns the ultimate reality of emptiness, while Jetāri wrote a manual for taking the bodhisattva vow and a practice manual for beginners. In his treatise entitled ''Presenting Twelve Points on the Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa''), Mañjuśrīmitra argues that bodhicitta is the mother of all buddhas, the basis of all disciplines, the foundation of all merit, the source of all enlightened qualities, the basis of liberation, and the supreme path leading to enlightenment.<ref>See ''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2578, vol. 65, rgyud, ngu, fols. 44b4–59a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2578.</ref> However, the most prolific Indian author on bodhicitta belonging to the Middle Way school in the first millennium after Śāntideva was Kamalaśīla. He wrote his trilogy on ''The Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama'') in which he presented the gradual process of the bodhisattva path. He and his teacher Śāntarakṣita, both of whom visited Tibet in the second half of the eighth century, and Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, who traveled to Tibet in the middle of the eleventh century, were the leading doyens who transmitted the teachings on bodhicitta to Tibet.

As for the Vast Conduct tradition, which is supposed to have come down from Maitreya and the pioneer advocate Asaṅga, it continued through Vasubandhu, the younger brother of Asaṅga, who initially followed a non-Mahāyāna school and was critical of Asaṅga's teachings, but later embraced the Mahāyāna school of Mind Only. Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Asaṅga's ''The Compendium of Mahāyāna'' (''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''), and ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Aspiration to Good Actions'' (''Āryabhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja''). Additionally, a work entitled ''Treatise on the Generation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādaśāstra'') is attributed to him. Other commentators and masters who continued the teachings on bodhicitta in this line include Vasubandhu's students Sthiramati, Dignāga, and Guṇaprabha, who wrote various commentaries. They were followed by Jinaputra, Jñānaśrī, Niḥsvabhāvatā, Parahitabhadra, and Sāgaramegha, whose works are included in the Tibetan Tengyur canon. A prominent master of this line was the householder Candragomin,<ref>While there is no complete scholarly consensus, the majority of modern scholarship seems to place Candragomin in either the fifth–sixth centuries CE (the earlier estimate) or more commonly in the seventh century CE (approximately 600–650 CE, with the latter being the more widely accepted timeframe among contemporary scholars.</ref> who authored a treatise called ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'')<ref>See ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4081, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 166b1–167a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4081.</ref> and is said to have challenged Candrakīrti in debate. Śāntarakṣita and Bodhibhadra wrote commentaries on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses''.<ref>See ''Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti'' (''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4082, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 167a6–184b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4082, and ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśakapañjikā'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa'i dka' 'grel''), in Derge Tengyur D4083, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 184b3–217b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4083.</ref> The teachings and instructions in this tradition were passed down to Atiśa mainly by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa in the tenth century.

While the teachings on bodhicitta spread through these two Mahāyāna lineages, Mahāyāna Buddhism also saw the rise of yet another mode of practice and transmission. This was the emergence of what came to be called Vajrayāna or tantric Buddhism, as the system was mainly based on a body of literature called tantras. Purported to be the words of the Buddha just like the Mahāyāna sūtras, these tantras presented a path to enlightenment that included a wide range of mental, verbal, and embodied tools, as well as radical techniques. Focused on the unraveling of the innate mind of enlightenment, it adopted a syncretic approach, using a great number of non-Buddhist rituals and elements infused with Buddhist philosophies and values to bring about an expedient internal transformation. The tantric masters and texts underscored the importance of bodhicitta as an indispensable component of the Vajrayāna path. They promoted the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta as an intention to seek buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings but championed the understanding of bodhicitta as the realization of the innate nature of the mind and existence. We find also in the Vajrayāna teachings the presentation of symbolic and embodied forms of bodhicitta, which Dorji Wangchuk categorizes as psycho-physiological and semeiological bodhicitta. These esoteric Vajrayāna teachings on bodhicitta flourished in India toward the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, when it also started to spread to Tibet.

A couple centuries after their emergence in India, the teachings on bodhicitta began to spread beyond India. The teachings first traveled to Central Asia and from there to China. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', for instance, was translated by Lokakṣema in 179 BCE. This was followed by the translation of many other sūtras and commentaries by translators such as Paramārtha, Dharmarakṣa, Kumārajīva, Buddhabhadra, and Dharmakṣema in the subsequent centuries. These included the main sūtras containing teachings on bodhicitta such as ''The Flower Ornament Sūtra'' (''Avataṃsakasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'', ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'', ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'', ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'', ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'', and the other versions of the perfection of wisdom sūtras. From the accounts of Āryadeva and Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, we can also surmise that the teachings on bodhicitta spread to Ceylon and southeastern parts of Asia.

== The Transmission of Bodhicitta Teachings to Tibet ==
Tibetan historians claim that some Buddhist sūtras, such as ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' (དཔང་སྐོང་ཕྱག་བརྒྱ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ།)<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 1b1–5b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267. No Sanskrit or Chinese versions of this sūtra are known to exist.</ref> and ''The Basket's Display'' (''Karaṇḍavyūhasūtra''),<ref>''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa za ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur, D116, vol. 51, mdo sde, pa, fols. 200a3–247b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0116.</ref> reached Tibet during the reign of the twenty-eighth Yarlung king, Lha Thothori, sometime in the fifth century. Although no one in Tibet understood the texts at that time, they contained teachings on altruism and the bodhisattva path. While ''The Basket's Display'' mainly focuses on the virtues of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion, and his mantra, ''oṃ maṇi padme huṃ'', ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' contains homages to buddhas, the twelve sets of the Buddha's teachings, and bodhisattvas. It also explicitly mentions bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I, by the name . . . from now on until I reach the heart of enlightenment, shall cultivate the thought of enlightenment. I shall never let go of the thought of enlightenment. May I never be separated from the sublime virtuous friend.<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 5a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267.</ref>
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The Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on bodhicitta in particular may have spread to Tibet in some form in the seventh century during the reign of the thirty-second Yarlung monarch Songtsen Gampo. During this time Songtsen Gampo took two Buddhist brides—one from Tang China and another from the Kathmandu Valley—and also sent his minister Thönmi Sambhoṭa to India to learn Sanskrit. While we see the general introduction of the Buddhist system at this time, there are no specific records of texts related to bodhicitta having been translated or taught during this period, although later records such as the ''Maṇi Kabum'' would have us believe that teachings on compassion and bodhicitta were promulgated. Tibetan Buddhists also believe that the study and practice of bodhicitta and compassion formed a fundamental part of Songtsen Gampo’s promotion of the Buddhist religion, as he was himself considered an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion.

Historical records clearly point to the dissemination of teachings on bodhicitta in Tibet in the eighth century during the reign of Trisong Detsen, the thirty-seventh king of the Yarlung dynasty. Besides inviting to Tibet numerous Buddhist scholars and masters such as Śāntarakṣita, Padmasambhava, and Vimalamitra from India and Mohoyen from China, Tri Songdetsen initiated extensive Buddhist projects, including the construction of Samye Monastery, the institution of the first Tibetan monastic community, and above all the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan from Sanskrit and Chinese. A great number of Mahāyāna sūtras, which contained the teachings on bodhicitta, as well as many tantras and commentaries, were translated toward the end of the eighth century and beginning of the ninth century, as witnessed by the catalogs of texts created around that time. For instance, ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', which elaborates on the cultivation of bodhicitta, and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', two of the main treatises discussing bodhicitta, were translated as part of this massive translation program.

Similarly, tantric texts such as ''The Garland of Views: The King of Pith Instructions'' (''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'')<ref>*''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'' (''Man ngag gi rgyal po lta ba'i 'phreng ba''), in Pe cing Tengyur Q4726, vol. 77, rgyud 'grel, bu, 414b7–419b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG13126_4726.</ref> by Padmasambhava and ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (aka ''Bodhicittabhāvanā'') by Mañjuśrīmitra,<ref>*''Bodhicittabhāvanā'' (''Byang sems rdo la gser zhun''), also known as ''Meditation on Bodhicitta'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2591, vol. 66, rgyud 'grel, cu, 1b1–4b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2591.</ref> which explain the concept of ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric context, were also translated and taught. Mañjuśrīmitra praises bodhicitta in the latter text as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All dharmas considered to be sublime features of liberation
Are qualities of perfecting bodhicitta; they come from bodhicitta.<ref>ཇི་སྙེད་འཕགས་པའི་རྣམ་གྲོལ་ཆོས་སུ་བསྙད་པ་དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྫོགས་ལས་དེ་ཡི་ཡོན་ཏན་དེ་ལས་དེ་དག་བྱུང་། Mañjuśrīmitra, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems sde spyi'i snying po'i bstan bcos byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun'', in Damngak Dzö, vol. 1, ka, 182, fol. 9b2–3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun#tab=Tibetan_Text.</ref>
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Many texts now included in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras (Nyingma Gyubum), such as ''The All Creating King of Bodhicitta'' (''Kulayarājatantra''),<ref>''Sarvadharmamahāśantibodhicittakulayarāja'' (''Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems kun byed rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D828, vol. 97, rnying rgyud, ka, 1b1–86a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0828.</ref> formulate the concept of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and appear to have been translated by Vairocana and others during this period. History also records a debate between the gradualist Indian tradition, led by Kamalaśīla, and the simultaneist Chinese tradition, led by Mohoyen, with King Trisong Detsen as the judge. The Indian side that promoted a gradualist approach to the cultivation of bodhicitta is said to have won, and the king is said to have declared the gradualist Indian tradition to be the official system in Tibet. This period of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet came to be known as the early diffusion period, or ''ngadar'', in contrast to the later diffusion period, or ''chidar'', which took place in Tibet from the eleventh century onward.

The great Buddhist intellectual and spiritual activity in Tibet that included the translation of innumerable works and the open promotion of Buddhist teachings stopped in the middle of the ninth century. As the Yarlung dynasty collapsed due to internecine conflicts, Tibet entered a century and half of political fragmentation and intellectual decline. However, with the revival of Buddhist systems toward the end of the tenth century, Tibet witnessed a resurgence of the study and practice of bodhicitta both in the exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric traditions. Those who preserved the teachings from the early diffusion period became known as the Ancient, or Nyingma, school, while others who brought new teachings from India, Nepal, and Kashmir came to be known as the New, or Sarma, schools. The new schools included some of the leading sects such as Kadam, Kagyu, and Sakya.

Within the Nyingma school, the teachings on bodhicitta continued through the received tradition known as the ''kama'' teachings as well as the new revelations known as ''terma''. The received ''kama'' tradition, which covers the complete range of the Buddhist system, including the nine vehicles, passed on the study and practice of bodhicitta as an essential component of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna path. Most of the books in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras, considered to be apocryphal writings by later critics, began to circulate as Buddhism was revived in the eleventh century. Many of these works described bodhicitta as the state of perfect enlightenment which is latent in beings. This was further enhanced by the ''terma'' literature, which is believed to have been hidden by Padmasambhava and his coterie in the eighth and ninth centuries to be revealed and disseminated by treasure discoverers, or ''tertön''s, at the right time in the future. Composed mostly of ritual liturgies and meditation instructions, the numerous cycles of rediscovered teachings also promoted bodhicitta as a fundamental aspect of Vajrayāna practice.

The new schools equally underscored the importance of bodhicitta in both exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric study and practice. Among the most notable developments in this period was the arrival of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1055) in Tibet in 1042 CE at the invitation of Jangchub Ö, the king of Western Tibet. Historians narrate that with the chaotic and decentralized revival of Buddhism in Tibet toward the end of tenth century, the kings of Western Tibet were alarmed by the wayward conduct of some Buddhist teachers who were abusing tantric practices by making some of the secretive teachings public and taking some of the symbolic teachings literally. Thus, the kings felt the urgency to correct this by inviting an authoritative and eminent master from India, a bill which Atiśa fit perfectly, as he had become renowned as the most erudite and accomplished master in India by this time. Traditional Tibetan historians claim that Yeshe Ö, the monk ruler of Western Tibet and uncle of Jangchub Ö, was taken prisoner in a conflict with the Garlog Turks, who demanded a ransom in gold equal to his size. Yeshe Ö is said to have instructed his nephew to use the gold his nephew had raised to invite Atiśa to Tibet, rather than giving it to the Turks. This story, contested by some modern scholars, is often told to highlight the personal sacrifices made by Tibet’s kings to bring the sacred teachings of the Buddha to Tibet.<ref>See Sam van Schaik, ''Tibet: A History'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 57.</ref>

After two separate emissaries to India led by Gya Lotsāwa Tsöndru Senge (བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེངྒེ་, d.u.) and Naktso Lotsāwa Tsultrim Gyalwa (ནག་འཚོ་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱལ་བ་, 1011–1064) respectively, and after much effort to persuade the abbot of Vikramaśīla, Atiśa was allowed to travel to Tibet. Jangchub Ö received him in Western Tibet, and during his time in the royal court, Atiśa composed ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhipathapradīpa'', (''Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma''), in Derge Tengyur D3947, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 238a6–241a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3947.</ref> a treatise which laid out the spiritual path for three types of persons. This text, along with its autocommentary, highlighted the ethical aspects of the Buddhist path, including the practice of bodhicitta, and would become the exemplar of the ''lamrim'' genre of literature on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Atiśa also composed the short text ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' (''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 294b7–296a1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref> which supplemented his earlier work on the conduct of the bodhisattva. He writes in it:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Cultivate loving kindness and compassion;
Hold firm the thought of enlightenment. (v. 5)<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེ་བསྒོམ་བྱ་ཞིང༌། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ནི་བརྟན་པར་བྱ། ། ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 295a.2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref>
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Besides these two main works on bodhicitta and Mahāyāna, Atiśa also composed numerous other treatises and commentaries, many of them at the request of his Tibetan students. His teachings were spread by his many students, including Dromtön Gyalwai Jungne (འབྲོམ་སྟོན་རྒྱལ་བའི་འབྱུང་གནས་, 1004–64), his lay disciple who established Reting Monastery and launched the Kadam tradition, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab (རྔོག་ལེགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ, eleventh century), who founded Sangpu Neuthok, the famous Buddhist scholastic center in Tibet that flourished from the eleventh–fourteenth centuries. The three chief students of Dromtönpa—Potowa Rinchen Sal (པོ་ཏོ་བ་རིན་ཆེན་གསལ་, 1027–1105), Chengawa Tsultrim Bar (སྤྱན་སྔ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་འབར་, 1033/8–1103), and Puchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen (ཕུ་ཆུང་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1031–1106)—often referred to as the three brothers (''སྐུ་མཆེད་རྣམ་གསུམ་''), developed the Kadam tradition further and initiated the rise of the rich and powerful tradition of Lojong, or mind training. At the heart of the Lojong tradition is the practice of cultivating bodhicitta, particularly through the seven points of cause and effect.

While Atiśa was on his way to Tibet, he met Marpa Chökyi Lodro (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012?–1097) in Kathmandu. Marpa, who declined to be Atiśa’s translator, was at that time on his trip to India to receive teachings from Nāropa. Having received teachings from many masters such as Nāropa, Maitrīpa, and Jñānagarbha, Marpa started giving teachings to numerous disciples in southern Tibet, leading to the establishment of the Marpa Kagyu school. Teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta were disseminated through this school, and they were especially integrated into the instructions on Mahāmudrā and the Six Yogas of Nāropa. These teachings would spread widely in the subsequent centuries through the different subschools founded by the followers of Marpa.

Before Marpa embarked on his journeys to India, he studied under Drokmi Śākya Yeshe (འབྲོག་མི་ཤཱཀྱ་ཡེ་ཤེས་, 992?–1043/1072), whose fees turned out to be too high for Marpa to afford. Drokmi had traveled to Nepal and India before Marpa and studied under many Buddhist teachers. He also translated many texts, but his specialization lay in the teachings on the Path and Result, or Lamdre (ལམ་འབྲས་), which he received from Gayadhāra (ག་ཡ་དྷ་ར་, 994–1043) and Prajñendraruci (aka Vīravajra, eleventh century). In Tibet, he passed on these teachings to his main disciples, including Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya school, which has championed the teachings of the Path and Result, of which bodhicitta is an essential component.

The bodhicitta teachings propagated by Marpa and Drokmi relied heavily on extensive new tantras such as the ''Hevajra'', ''Cakrasaṃvara'', and ''Guhyasamaja''. They promoted the concept of bodhicitta both in its ethical dimension as the compassionate intention to take all sentient beings to perfect enlightenment and its ontological dimension as the state of ultimate reality. The following statement from the ''Hevajratantra'' sums up this unity:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=That which is called bodhicitta
Is the nonduality of emptiness and compassion.<ref>སྟོང་ཉིད་སྙིང་རྗེ་དབྱེར་མེད་པ། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་རབ་ཏུ་བརྗོད། ། ''Hevajratantra'' (''Kye'i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D417, vol. 80, rgyud, nga, fol. 13a.3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0417.</ref>
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The tantric teachings of the newer Marpa Kagyu and Sakya schools also discuss what Dorji Wangchuk calls the "psycho-physiological form of bodhicitta"—referring to seminal bodily fluids within tantric practices that utilize physical and psychic energies as catalysts for speedy spiritual transformation.<ref>For this discussion in Wangchuk, see chapter 6 in ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 217–23.</ref> Thus, the discussion of bodhicitta in such tantric contexts saw new heights in Tibetan religious discourse as the tantric schools gained prominence and became mainstream Buddhist traditions in Tibet.

Another important tradition through which the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread in Tibet, although the tradition did not take off to the same extent as the Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, and Sakya, is the Shangpa Kagyu, which originated in the famous scholar and meditation master Khyungpo Naljor (Khyung po rnal 'byor, 1050–1127). Khyungpo Naljor visited India and Nepal around seven times and studied under numerous teachers, his main masters being the female savants Sukhasiddhi and Nāropa’s sister Niguma, from whom he received the Six Yogas of Niguma. Similarly, the practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through the tradition of Severance, or Chö (''གཅོད་''), which is said to have begun with Machik Labdron (མ་གཅིག་ལབ་སྒྲོན་, 1055–1149), and Pacification, or Zhije (''ཞི་བྱེད་''), a tradition attributed to Padampa Sangye (ཕ་དམ་པ་སངས་རྒྱས་, eleventh century). ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' by the brahmin Āryadeva, which is a root text of the Chöd tradition, states at the outset:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Take up with respect the practice of refuge and thought of enlightenment
Follow the precepts like protecting one’s eyes.
The precepts of the bodhisattva
Should not be abandoned even at the cost of one’s life. v.5<ref>གུས་པས་སྐྱབས་འགྲོ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་བླང་། །བླངས་པའི་བསླབ་བྱ་མིག་བཞིན་བསྲུང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་བསླབ་བྱ་ནི། །སྲོག་གི་ཕྱིར་ཡང་སྤང་མི་བྱ། ། Āryadeva, ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod (Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999), 14:2-3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:%27phags_pa_shes_rab_kyi_pha_rol_tu_phyin_pa%27i_man_ngag Retrieved on 4/6/2025.</ref>
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Similarly, Padampa Sangye, in one of his famous pieces of advice given to the local people in Dingri, states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The six realms of beings are precious as fields for gathering two accumulations.
Hold a loving mind and compassion, O Dingri people.<ref>ཚོགས་གཉིས་ཡུལ་དུ་རིགས་དྲུག་སེམས་ཅན་གཅེས། །བྱམས་སེམས་ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཟུངས་ཤིག་དིང་རི་བ། ། Padampa Sangye, ''Heart Advice Called The Stack of Lotus'' (''Thugs kyi zhal gdams pad+mo brtsegs pa''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod, 13:449, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Thugs_kyi_zhal_chems_pad_mo_brtsegs_pa#tab=null.</ref>
}}
The study and practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through other transmissions such as the Kālacakra (more specifically, the six branches of yogic practice associated with Kālacakra teachings) and through the three vajra accomplishment practice of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pel (ཨོ་རྒྱན་པ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1229–1309). These transmissions, along with the teachings and meditation techniques in the Nyingma, Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, Shangpa Kagyu, and Sakya schools, as well as the Severance and Pacification traditions, make up the "eight great chariots of practice" (''སྒྲུབ་བརྒྱུད་ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེ་བརྒྱད་'') and are considered to be the main practice lineages that formed during the Buddhist resurgence of the later diffusion period. It was through these traditions that the study and practice of bodhicitta, as an essential element of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, spread across Tibet.

== The Propagation of Bodhicitta Teachings in Tibet ==

=== The Nyingma School ===
As these Buddhist schools and their associated teachings and practices flourished from the eleventh century onward—having first developed in the eighth century—Tibet also witnessed the sustained spread of bodhicitta teachings. Among the Nyingma, we see the continuous transmission of bodhicitta study and practice both through the received ''kama'' tradition and the new ''terma'' revelations. While the rediscovered ''terma'' teachings focused primarily on ritual texts and meditation instructions that emphasized bodhicitta as a key practice, the ''kama'' tradition presented bodhicitta mainly as an ontological state representing ultimate reality. This was done through discourses on the ground nature, the path of pristine awareness, and the resultant state of the Buddha, all of which were presented as the nondual, innate, luminous nature of the mind.

The three inner tantras of the Nyingma—comprising Mahāyoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga—and the outer mind cycle, inner space cycle, and secret instruction cycle of the Atiyoga or Dzogchen teachings underscored the study and practice of bodhicitta as the innate nature of one’s mind. These tantric presentations were systematized and elaborated in the writings of leading Nyingma masters such as Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, mid-eleventh–early twelfth centuries), Longchenpa Drime Ozer (ཀློང་ཆེན་རབ་འབྱམས་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyel (མངའ་རིས་པཎ་ཆེན་པདྨ་དབང་རྒྱལ་, 1487–1542), Lochen Dharmaśrī (ལོ་ཆེན་དྷརྨ་ཤྲཱི་, 1654–1718), and Jigme Lingpa (འཇིགས་མེད་གླིང་པ་, 1739–1798). Rongzom and Longchenpa, for instance, carried out detailed discussions on bodhicitta in the context of the ultimate nature of the mind in Dzogchen thought, making them the greatest thinkers and masters of the Dzogchen system. In his treatise ''Entering the Way of the Mahāyāna'' (''ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་''), Rongzom discusses bodhicitta in detail and states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The base of all phenomena is included in the mind and appearances of the mind. The nature of the mind is awakening, thus it is called the mind of awakening.<ref>ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་རྩ་བ་ནི་སེམས་དང་སེམས་སྣང་བ་ཙམ་དུ་འདུས་ལ། སེམས་ཀྱི་རང་བཞིན་ཉིད་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཡིན་པས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་བྱའོ།། See Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po’i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:477.</ref>
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He also writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Here, bodhicitta is the cultivation of thought combining wisdom and compassion.<ref>དེ་ལ་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་ནི་འདིར་ཤེས་རབ་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་བསྡུས་པའི་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའོ།། Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po'i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:500.</ref>
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Rongzompa, Longchenpa, and Lochen Dharmaśrī also commented on ''The Heart of Secret Tantra'' (''Guhyagarbhatantra''), which highlights the concept of bodhicitta as the innate nature of reality. Rongzom starts his commentary on this tantra with the claim that "bodhicitta is the essence of Three Jewels."<ref>དཀོན་མཆོག་གསུམ་གྱི་རང་བཞིན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Rongzom Chozang, ''Rgyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:33.</ref> With great emphasis on the higher tantric practices, the Nyingma masters vigorously took up the study and practice of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and as the pristine nonconceptual self-awareness of such nature.

The Nyingma masters also covered the concept of bodhicitta as the altruistic intention to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Among them, Longchenpa, who is unrivaled among the Nyingma masters in the systematization and synthesis of the Nyingma teachings in general and the Dzogchen system in particular, was perhaps the first one to discuss the theory and practice of relative bodhicitta in detail. He did this in two of his major works: ''The Treasury of Wish-fulfilling Jewels'' (''ཡིད་བཞིན་མཛོད་'')<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Yid bzhin mdzod rtsa ba'', in Mdzod bdun (a 'dzom par ma) (A 'dzom chos sgar: Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul dpal yul rdzong a 'dzom chos sgar, 1999), 1:3–88, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD8_31FD92.</ref> and ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' (''སེམས་ཉིད་ངལ་གསོ་'').<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:25–113, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_BEDB7A. For an English translation, see Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''Finding Rest in the Nature of the Mind'', vol. 1 of ''The Trilogy of Rest'', by Longchenpa (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, 2017).</ref> Like Rongzompa's description of bodhicitta as the essence of the Three Jewels, Longchenpa claims bodhicitta to be the root of all Dharma in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having become properly accustomed to the immeasurable thoughts,
One must cultivate the two types of bodhicitta, the root of all Dharma.<ref>དེ་ལྟར་ཚད་མེད་ལེགས་པར་གོམས་པ་ཡིས། །ཆོས་ཀུན་རྩ་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་གཉིས་བསྒོམ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes poʼi shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:46–47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
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He also defines bodhicitta in the following manner:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=To cultivate the [bodhicitta] thought is to desire
To reach the perfect buddha for the sake of limitless beings.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་ཚད་མེད་འགྲོ་བའི་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་སངས་རྒྱས་ཐོབ་པར་འདོད་པ་སྟེ། །སྨོན་དང་འཇུག་པའི་རང་བཞིན་གཉིས་ཡིན་ནོ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
}}
Closely following Longchenpa's elaborate discussion of bodhicitta—its definition, types, procedures for taking bodhicitta vow, and precepts—in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' and its two-volume commentary entitled ''The Great Chariot'' (''ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེན་པོ་''),<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'i 'grel pa shing rta chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), vols. 20–21, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref> Ngari Paṇchen carries out a clear and elaborate discussion of bodhicitta and bodhisattva ethics in his ''Ascertaining Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་པ་གསུམ་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ་''),<ref>See Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyal, ''Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'', in Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'i rtsa ba dang mchan 'grel rig pa 'dzin pa'i 'jug ngogs (Bylakuppe: Snga 'gyur mtho slob mdo sngags rig pa'i 'byung gnas, 1996), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23221. For an English translation of the root text, see Khenpo Gyurme Samdrub and Sangye Khandro, trans., ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'', by Ngari Paṇchen Wangyal, with commentary by Dudjom Rinpoche (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2014).</ref> on which Lochen Dharmaśrī wrote a commentary.<ref>See Lochen Dharmaśrī, ''Sdom gsum rtsa ba dang de'i 'grel pa dpag bsam snye ma sogs'' (Gser rta rdzong: Gser thang bla rung lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, n.d.), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN4872.</ref> Dharmaśrī also wrote a detailed explanation of the eighteen root downfalls or transgressions associated with the bodhisattva vow according to ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''. Similarly, Jigme Lingpa deliberated on bodhicitta in ''The Treasury of Precious Qualities'' (''ཡོན་ཏན་མཛོད་'') and in his autocommentary.<ref>See Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod dga' ba'i char'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (A 'dzom par ma: 'Brug spa gror bskyar par btab pa, 1990–1999), 1:29–166, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW7477_19AE1E.</ref>

The master most famous for championing the promotion of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, however, was Patrul Orgyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo (དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་ཨོ་རྒྱན་འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་ཀྱི་དབང་པོ་, 1808–1887). This wandering teacher reportedly taught ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' over a hundred times. His love for and expertise in this text was so remarkable that he was considered an incarnation of the Indian master Śāntideva by his contemporaries. Patrul held regular teaching retreats during which he would expound upon the text and also carry out the cultivation of bodhicitta. In this manner, he left behind a rich tradition of teaching and practicing bodhicitta in general and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in particular. He also authored the famous inspirational work entitled ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''ཀུན་བཟང་བླ་མའི་ཞལ་ལུང་།''),<ref>See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Kun bzang bla ma'i zhal lung'', part 1 and 2 (Kathmandu: Rigpe Dorje Institute, 2024), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-1-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-1/; https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-2-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-2/.</ref> which contains persuasive stories and teachings on compassion and bodhicitta. In one of his prayers, ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (''རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་མཆོག་ཏུ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའི་སྨོན་ལམ།''), he remarks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood.<ref> ཡོད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་དེས་ཆོག་ཅིང་། །མེད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་ཐབས་ཆག་པ། །སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་པའི་ས་བོན་མ་ནོར་བ། །རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་བསྐྱེད་པར་ཤོག ། For the Tibetan text, see Patrul Rinpoche, ''Rnam dag byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i smon lam'' (Lotsawa House, 2010, rev. 2012 & 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/patrul-rinpoche/aspiration-generate-bodhichitta. The translation belongs to Karma Phuntsho.</ref>
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Patrul's inspiration and influence spread beyond his own Nyingma school, especially with regard to his deep understanding and unparalleled expertise in teaching and practicing bodhicitta according to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. In the true spirit of Rime ecumenism of which he was a leading advocate, he would teach this text to different audiences, using the commentaries and giving interpretations which were most appropriate to each group. He did not compose a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as did many other Tibetan masters, but he wrote a guide for putting the text into practice and a powerful outline that captures the content and layout of the entire text with exceptional clarity and cohesion. Patrul became an immensely respected doyen for the study and practice of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', so much so that almost everyone studying and teaching the text after him embraced his lineage and traced their line of transmission to him.

Patrul's students recorded the gems of his insight into ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the commentary they put together. Among the many students who received teachings from him on bodhicitta was Orgyen Tenzin Norbu (ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་ནོར་བུ་, 1841?–1900?), who received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' from Patrul many times and taught it some two hundred times. Both he and Patrul taught Kunzang Palden (ཀུན་བཟང་དཔལ་ལྡན་, 1862–1943), who recorded their instructions in the extensive commentary entitled ''The Nectar of Mañjuśrī's Speech''.<ref>Kunzang Pelden, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i tshig 'grel 'jam dbyangs bla ma'i zhal lung bdud rtsi'i thigs pa'', in Gsung 'bum kun bzang dpal ldan, vol. 1 (Lama Ngodru and Sherab Demy, 1982), 5–746, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23946_57D951. For a bilingual version of the text with English translation by Padmakara, see this site: https://bodhicitta.tsadra.org/index.php/Books/The_Nectar_of_Manjushri%27s_Speech/Sabche.</ref> Another student, Jigme Chöphel Zangpo (འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་དཔལ་བཟང་པོ་, nineteenth century), received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' nine times from Patrul and compiled the notes from him on the first three and the tenth chapters. Minyak Kunzang Sonam (མི་ཉག་ཀུན་བཟང་བསོད་ནམས་, 1823–1905), a scholar from the Geluk tradition, also received teachings on the text nine times from Patrul and composed an extensive commentary.<ref>See Minyak Kunzang Sonam, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel bshad rgyal sras rgya mtsho'i yon tan rin po che mi zad 'jo ba'i bum bzang'', in ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang'' (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990), 1–584, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW15659.</ref>

A student of Patrul who left a significant legacy for the Nyingma tradition was Ju Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (འཇུ་མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912), probably Tibet's greatest polymath. Mipham wrote on a wide range of subjects and left behind an astounding thirty-two volumes covering almost all sciences known to him. His writings on Buddhist philosophy and practice, which contain the Nyingma understanding of Buddhist topics, form the core curriculum for scholastic study and meditation practice in the Nyingma tradition today. ''The Ketaka Gem'' (''ནོར་བུ་ཀེ་ཏ་ཀ་''), his commentary on the ninth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', which he wrote after he received teachings on it from Patrul, is a good example of his philosophical writing.<ref>See Mipham Gyatso, ''Spyod 'jug sher 'grel ke ta ka'' (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4996.</ref> While the text triggered polemical exchanges between him and his opponents, today it is widely read among followers of the Nyingma school. Mipham wrote a great deal on relative and ultimate bodhicitta in a number of his works in the context of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, including a commentary on Mañjuśrīmitra's ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta''.<ref>Mipham Gyatso, ''Byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun gyi mchan 'grel de kho na nyid gsal ba'i sgron me'', in Mi pham rgya mtsho'i gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Gangs can rig gzhung dpe rnying myur skyobs lhan tshogs, 2007), 23:63-95. See also https://online.adarshah.org/index.html?kdb=mipam&sutra=MP203&page=13-3-1ahttps://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun.</ref> The legacies of Patrul and Mipham continued through the works of their students and followers, who vigorously promoted the study and practice of bodhicitta.

The Kham region of Tibet experienced a remarkable renaissance of the Nyingma tradition during the era of the great masters of Patrul and Mipham. This renaissance, which involved many eminent figures, saw a massive burst of new scholarship and ''terma'' revelation as well as the compilation, classification, and reproduction of existing Nyingma literature. Simultaneously, there was also a revitalization of Nyingma monasticism and the development of scholastic activity through the new culture of ''shedra'' exegetical seminaries, which became vibrant centers of scholarship. The literary and institutional legacies left by this renaissance changed the trajectory of the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school.

It was ultimately the Rime movement led by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (འཇམ་དབྱངས་མཁྱེན་བརྩེའི་དབང་པོ་, 1820–1892), Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (འཇམ་མགོན་ཀོང་སྤྲུལ་བློ་གྲོས་མཐའ་ཡས་, 1813–1899), Patrul Rinpoche, and Mipham that had a significant impact on wider Buddhist study and practice. This movement came into being primarily to counteract the sectarian disputes and violence that frequently occurred between Tibetan Buddhist schools. Historical examples of violent sectarian conflicts include clashes between the Sakyapas and Drigungpas (thirteenth–fourteenth centuries), Kagyupas and Gelukpas (seventeenth century), and Nyingma and Geluk schools (eighteenth century). Moreover, the Gelukpa school with the political support of the Gaden Phodrang government had been extending their influence since the fifteenth century, leading to widespread religious prejudice and proselytization. In addition, the Rime masters had reservations about Gelukpa scholasticism, which was codified in individual college textbooks and professed through the eristic study of formulaic argumentation. Mipham particularly expressed such concern about the rigidity, verbosity, and aridity of Gelukpa scholasticism, which was founded on sophistic logic.

To stem this scholastic trend and the doctrinal controversies arising from partisan interpretations, the Rime teachers promoted the reorientation of religious study toward the Indian original texts and an eclectic approach to studying the essential teachings of all Tibetan traditions regardless of one's religious affiliation. This led to a restructuring of scholarly curricula in the ''shedra'' exegetical colleges and fostered some degree of interdenominational learning and teaching by the beginning of the twentieth century. To this effect, Khenpo Zhenga, or Zhenphen Chökyi Nangwa (གཞན་ཕན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྣང་བ་, 1871–1927), an ecumenical abbot of the ''shedra'' in Dzongsar, compiled commentaries on thirteen great classic Indian treatises, including ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yoga'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', which discuss bodhicitta and the bodhisattva path in detail. His commentaries, which are based on the writings by the Indian masters, came to be widely used as the core curriculum in the rising ''shedra'' colleges affiliated with the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya schools.

The study and practice of bodhicitta were flourishing in the scholastic and meditation centers when the People’s Liberation Army swept across Tibet. This was followed by the tragic Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). These events no doubt disrupted the scholarly pursuit of bodhicitta and gave ample opportunities for its practitioners to put it into practice in the face of overwhelming challenges and hardship. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, like in most other Tibetan Buddhist schools, recovered and reached new heights in large centers such as Namdroling Monastery in India and Larung Gar and Yachen in Tibet. These institutions attracted unprecedented numbers of students from Tibet and around the world, all of whom came to pursue Buddhist education through modernized monastic college programs that typically lasted nine years and covered topics such as bodhicitta in comprehensive detail.

=== The Kadam School ===
The Kadam school, which is considered the earliest of the ''sarma'', or new, schools, came to be known as a leading promoter of teachings on bodhicitta. Atiśa Dīpaṃkara is said to have combined in his teachings and practice both the Profound View and Vast Conduct traditions—the two main transmissions of Mahāyāna teachings in general and bodhicitta in particular. He received these transmissions from numerous masters such as Dharmarakṣita, Bodhibhadra, Dharmakīrti, Maitrīyogi, and Nāropa, and passed them down to numerous students, including his three main students—Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, who founded Reting Monastery, Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. The Kadam tradition became formalized as a tradition of seven divinity-dharmas (''བཀའ་གདམས་ལྷ་ཆོས་བདུན་ལྡན་''), which include Śākyamuni, Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, and Acala as four deities and the corpuses of Vinaya, Sūtra, and Abhidharma as the three dharmas.

The founding fathers of Kadam were succeeded by many influential masters, chief among whom were the aforementioned "three Kadam brothers"—Potowa Rinchen Sal, Chengawa Tsultrim Bar, and Phuchungwa Shönu Gyaltsen. As the Kadam tradition evolved, it also saw the development of two distinct lines of practice, especially in terms of the content and style of its teachings. Firstly, the Kadam tradition became a champion of the Lamrim, or stages of path, tradition. The Lamrim tradition revolved around Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', which covered the paths for persons of inferior, middling, and superior capacities. This was supplemented by the six treatises of Kadam (''བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་''), which they adopted as their core scriptural sources. They included Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'', Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''Compendium of Training'', Āryaśūra's ''Garland of Birth Stories'' (''Jātakamāla''),<ref>Āryaśūra, ''Jātakamāla'', in Derge Tengyur D4150, vol. 168, skyes rab, hu, 1b1-135a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4150.</ref> and ''The Collection of Aphorisms'' (''Udānavarga''),<ref>''Udānavarga'' (''Ched du brjod pa'i tshoms''), in Derge Kangyur D326, vol. 72, mdo sde, sa 209a1–253a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0326.</ref> attributed to the historical Buddha. These texts became the main treatises for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Kadam tradition.

Among the early Tibetan ''lamrim'' texts were Potowa's ''Blue Booklet'' (བེའུ་བུམ་སྔོན་མོ།), works by Gönpawa Wangchuk Gyaltsen (དགོན་པ་བ་དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1016–1082) that drew directly from Atiśa's teachings, and texts by Ngok Lekpai Sherap that were based on the teachings of Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung. Stressing the importance of bodhicitta, Potowa, as quoted by Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361), states in ''The Blue Booklet'',
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Knowing them to be just like oneself,
Treat everyone with love and compassion.
By doing so, if one upholds bodhicitta,
Therein lies each and every dharma.<ref>བདག་ཅི་འདྲ་བ་དེ་འདྲར་ཤེས་པས། །ཀུན་ལ་བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་འཇུག་བྱ། །དེས་བསྐྱེད་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དང་ལྡན་ན། །དེ་ལ་ཆོས་རྣམས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀུན་གནས། ། Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, ''Bka' gdams kyi man ngag be'u bum sngon mo'i rtsa 'grel (Lhasa, Sertsu Nangten Penying Tsholdu Chokdrikhang, 2016), 24, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG25234.</ref>
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Potowa also composed ''The Teaching in Similes'' (དཔེ་ཆོས།), which contains similes, sayings, and stories from folk culture employed to illustrate the points related to the spiritual path. Around the same time, a set of literary compositions on the spiritual path closely related to the ''lamrim'' called ''tenrim'' (བསྟན་རིམ་), or stages of the doctrine, developed. ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Doctrine'' (བསྟན་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ།) by Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne (གྲོ་ལུང་པ་བློ་གྲོས་འབྱུང་གནས་, eleventh century) is perhaps the earliest one.<ref>See Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne, ''Bstan rim chen mo'' (Delhi: Norbu Kharphigsi Publications, 2014), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG24221.</ref> These books, in contrast to works in the ''lamrim'' genre which lay out the path for the persons of three capacities, discuss the different teachings in the Buddhist system, taking an inclusive and cohesive approach in order to reconcile the diverse teachings. Some scholars understood the terms ''lamrim'' and ''tenrim'' to be synonyms, but others differentiated the two and considered ''tenrim'' to refer to public discourses and ''lamrim'' to refer to personalized private instructions.

Whatever the case, the approach of seeing all teachings as noncontradictory, understanding all scriptures as pith instructions, fathoming the intent of the Buddha easily, and absolving evil actions spontaneously are seen as the four special qualities of the Kadam tradition. With such an open and inclusive approach, the Kadam master generally embraced all Buddhist teachings. Yet, this did not entail a monotonous and homogenous system. Based on their specializations, the adherents of the Kadam school became divided into the tradition of scriptures (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་པ་) associated with Potowa and the tradition of oral and didactic pith instructions (བཀའ་གདམས་མན་ངག་པ་) associated with Chengawa, the latter further divided by some into essential instructions and oral instructions. In the cases of both the scriptural and instructional traditions, there were numerous other methods, styles, and techniques for presenting the teachings. Potowa favored approaching the teachings through mindfulness of the Buddha, Puchungwa through dependent origination, and Chengawa through the four noble truths. Within a couple generations of its diffusion, the Lamrim tradition of the Kadam school generated numerous commentaries and instructional texts while developing diverse approaches and styles for practicing the ''lamrim'' teachings.

The second most important component of Kadam study and practice was the tradition of Mind Training, or Lojong. Atiśa received various texts and techniques for mind training from his Indian teachers and passed them on to his main disciples, who in turn passed them on to their disciples. The pith instructions for mind training were mostly transmitted as secret teachings (ལྐོག་ཆོས་) in private sessions. Potowa passed down the ''lojong'' transmissions to Sharawa Yönten Drak (ཤ་ར་ཡོན་ཏན་གྲགས་, 1070–1141), whose disciple Tumtön Lodrö Drak (གཏུམ་སྟོན་བློ་གྲོས་གྲགས་, ca. 1106–1166) founded the famous Kadam center of Narthang in 1153, and to Langri Thangpa (གླང་རི་ཐང་པ་, 1054–1123), who composed ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' (''བློ་སྦྱོང་ཚིག་བརྒྱད་མ་'').<ref>See Langri Thangpa, ''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'', in Blo sbyong nyer mkho phyogs bsgrigs, ed. Ngag dbang sbyin pa and Cha ris skal bzang thogs med (Kan su: Kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 172–73, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW25275_54767F.</ref> Sharawa passed the instructions on to Chekawa Yeshe Dorje (འཆད་ཁ་བ་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1101–1175), who established Cheka Monastery and composed the famous ''Seven-Point Mind Training'' (''བློ་སྦྱོང་དོན་བདུམ་མ་'').<ref>See Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, ''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'i rtsa tshig sogs'', Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1NLM668.</ref> The transmission of ''lojong'' from Chekawa branched into northern and southern traditions and spread widely, with the cultivation of ultimate and relative bodhicitta at its core.

As the Kadam tradition evolved with its wealth of ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' teachings, its main historical records, teachings, and practices were compiled in ''The Book of Kadam'' (''བཀའ་གདམས་གླེགས་བམ་བཏུས་པའི་ཆོས་སྐོར་'').<ref>See Thupten Jinpa, ed., ''Bka' gdams glegs bam las btus pa'i chos skor'' (Delhi: Bod gyi gtsug lag zhib dpyod khang, 2005), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12514. For an English translation, see Thubten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008).</ref> With ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' by Atiśa at its core, the book contains sections called "Father Teachings," which are composed of questions and answers between Atiśa and Dromtönpa, and "Son Teachings," made up of questions and answers between Atiśa and Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. In the chapter discussing how all problems lie in the sole point of self-attachment—an important topic of meditation in the Lojong tradition—Atiśa asks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text="In that case, do you understand the mind's true mode of being?"

"Yes, I do," replied Drom.

Atiśa: "So what need is there of desires for this mind; cultivate contentment. Even though you perceive many sentient beings, all of them are your fathers and mothers who have taken joy in your overcoming of misfortune and [attainment] of good fortune. They have cleaned your runny nose with their mouths, your excrement with their hands, have nurtured you with kingdoms and with gifts, and some, despite having been abandoned [by us], have cared for us again. It is due to the kindness of the teacher that positive qualities are revealed. In general, it is the teacher who has done you the great kindness of granting you your ultimate aim. And it is your parents who are the source of great kindness granting you joy and happiness in this life. You should therefore recognize their kindness and repay their kindness.

"For this, serve the teacher through respectful veneration and meditative practice, and toward your parents, in order to repay their kindness, cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable joy when they are happy, and immeasurable equanimity that is free of discriminating thoughts of near and distant. For the benefit of all—all your mothers—strive as much as possible to attain buddhahood and, discarding lingering doubts, cherish your persistence in meditative practice. Abandoning all obstacles such as sloth, mental dullness, and laziness, endeavor with joyful perseverance.

"Drom, although one speaks of "recognizing the kindness of others and repaying it," it all seems to pertain to the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, such as loving-kindness and compassion; the stabilization of the awakening mind; its enhancement from high to ever higher levels; and the definite steering of one's parents with the paddles of [the two awakening minds,] aspirational and engaging."<ref>Thunten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 125–26.</ref>
}}
These passages and the many texts and teachings in the Lamrim and Lojong traditions of the Kadam school sufficiently demonstrate how bodhicitta forms the bedrock of the Kadam tradition and how the school came to champion its propagation. We also see the gradual development of the structures and procedures for practice, such as the seven instructions of cause and effect.

In addition to its strong practical orientation, the theoretical and philosophical study of bodhicitta also flourished within the Kadam school. This took place mainly through the scholastic education at Sangpu Neutok, the monastic college which was founded by Ngok Lekpai Sherab in 1072 and which rose to be a prominent Kadam center of learning some fifty years after its founding. At its peak, Sangpu Neutok was the most well-known center for scholastic education in Tibet, with alumni that included the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (དུས་གསུམ་མཁྱེན་པ་, 1110–1193), Longchenpa Drime Özer (ཀློང་ཆེན་པ་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (ཙོང་ཁ་པ་བློ་བཟང་གྲགས་པ་, 1357–1419), and Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (རོང་སྟོན་ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་རིག་, 1367–1449), who went to Sangpu for debate sessions. Some forty-five great masters such as Ngok Loden Sherab (རྔོག་བློ་ལྡན་ཤེས་རབ་, 1059–1109), Chapa Chökyi Senge (ཕྱ་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སེང་གེ་, 1109–1169), Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo (ཕག་མོ་གྲུ་པ་རྡོ་རྗེ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1110–1170), Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), Patsab Nyima Drakpa (པ་ཚབ་ཉི་མ་གྲགས་པ་, twelfth century) worked at Sangpu, making it a wonderful enclave of scholarship. Bodhicitta was rigorously studied through lectures, debates, and writing on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', and many other texts.

Another Kadam center where both the theoretical study and practical application of the teachings flourished and where a combination of both the tradition of scriptures and oral instructions thrived was Narthang, located in the Tsang region. Narthang produced great scholars such as Chim Namkha Drak (མཆིམས་ནམ་མཁའ་གྲགས་, 1210–1285), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་, 1219–1299), and Chomden Rikpai Raldri (བཅོམ་ལྡན་རིག་པའི་རལ་གྲི་, 1297–1305), who wrote commentaries on texts discussing bodhicitta and also composed practice manuals for its cultivation. Scholarship on bodhicitta flourished in the Kadam tradition. Some two dozen works, including full commentaries and short treatises, were written on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' alone by authors including Gyamar Jangchub Drak (རྒྱ་དམར་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་གྲགས་, eleventh–twelfth century), Chapa Chökyi Senge, Tsangnakpa Tsöndru Senge (གཙང་ནག་པ་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེང་གེ་, twelfth century), Drotön Dutsi Drak (གྲོ་སྟོན་བདུད་རྩི་གྲགས་, 1153–1232), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, Lodöe Tsungme (བློ་གྲོས་མཚུངས་མེད་, thirteenth century), and Kyitön Drakpa Gyaltsen (སྐྱི་སྟོན་གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, thirteenth century).

An outstanding Kadam luminary of his time was Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཐོགས་མེད་བཟང་པོ་, 1295–1369) of Ngulchu, particularly in terms of teaching and practicing bodhicitta. After studying in Sakya, Bodong, and Shalu Monasteries, Tokme Zangpo composed commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>See, for example, Gyalse Tokme Zangpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel pa legs bshad rgya mtsho'' (Them bu: Kun bzang stobs rgyas, 1975), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12289.</ref> and ''The Seven-Point Mind Training'',<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Commentary on the Seven Points of Mind Training'', by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (Lotsawa House, 2018), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/gyalse-thogme-zangpo/commentary-on-seven-points-mind-training.</ref> but his most significant contribution was ''The Thirty-Seven Bodhisattva Practices'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma''),<ref>See Tokme Zangpo, ''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'' (Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1988), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN15679.</ref> which today ranks among the most popular and influential texts for the study and practice of the path of the bodhisattva. Through these centers and masters, the study and practice of bodhicitta spread widely among the followers of the Kadam school.

The old Kadam tradition gradually declined in the fourteenth century but found a new manifestation in the new Gandenpa school of Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa. An influential monk, literary star, and master meditator, Tsongkhapa gave fresh life to the Kadam school but also departed from some of its old philosophical positions. He composed ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment'' (''ལམ་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ་''),<ref>Tsongkhapa, ''Lam rim chen mo'', in Gsung 'bum tsong kha pa (Zhol) (New Delhi: Mongolian Lama Guru Deva, 1978–1979), 13:39–1084, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW635_093BB6.</ref> a medium-length work on the ''lamrim'' (''ལམ་རིམ་འབྲིང་པོ་''), and a condensed work on the ''lamrim'' called ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'' (''ལམ་གཙོ་རྣམ་གསུམ་'').<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'', by Je Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (Lotsawa House, 2006, rev. 2012), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/bo/tibetan-masters/tsongkhapa/three-principal-aspects.</ref> He also composed works on ''lojong'', presenting a synthesized and structured theory as well as procedures for practice. By then, the old Kadam school declined as its teachings were incorporated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly the new Geluk school, which emerged as a reformed version of the Kadam school to carry on its legacies.

Toward the end of Tsongkhapa's life, the main seat of Ganden Monastery was established, followed soon by the founding of Sera and Drepung. These large monastic centers housed thousands of monks and carried out the rigorous study of bodhicitta in the context of their specific college curriculum (''ཡིག་ཆ་''). The authors of the ''yigcha'' such as Sonam Drakpa (བསོད་ནམས་གྲགས་པ་, 1478–1554), Jamyang Zhepa (འཇམ་དབྱངས་བཞད་པ་, 1648–1721), and Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (རྗེ་བཙུན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1469–1544) presented the definition, divisions, and benefits of bodhicitta during their deliberations on various Buddhist philosophical and moral topics. In fact, bodhicitta is the first of the seventy topics they studied as part of their long course on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. However, these monasteries did not include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' or ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' in their curriculum and study of these texts was carried out separately outside of the monastic curriculum.

Besides the authors of the curriculum, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the new Geluk school was also promoted by the successive Dalai Lamas, Paṇchen Lamas, and Ganden Tripas, as well as by the abbots and other geshes of the three main seats (Ganden, Sera, and Drepung) and the two tantric colleges. The First Dalai Lama, Gedun Drup (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་, 1391–1474), and the First Paṇchen Lama, Lobzang Chökyi Gyaltsen (བློ་བཟང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1570–1662), both wrote on ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' practices. Other inspirational Geluk figures such as Changkya Rolpai Dorje (ལྕང་སྐྱ་རོལ་པའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1717–1786) and Könchok Tenpai Drönme (དཀོན་མཆོག་བསྟན་པའི་སྒྲོན་མེ་, 1762–1823) wrote specific works on the cultivation of bodhicitta. Könchok Tenpai Drönme, for example, presents instructions on how to first cultivate relative bodhicitta, then ultimate bodhicitta, and finally how the two work together. In his instructions for practicing the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, he pretends to be in a debate with selfishness, which he refutes using different arguments.

The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Geluk school, like all other traditions in Tibet, went through tumultuous changes beginning in the middle of the twentieth century with the arrival of the People's Liberation Army and continuing through the Cultural Revolution. For over three decades, the study of bodhicitta in the Geluk school went through its darkest chapter, though many masters did excel in the practice of bodhicitta in the face of severe atrocities.

The bodhicitta teachings were soon revived in India through the establishment of monastic centers for education and practice by Tibetans who had fled Tibet following the upheavals of the 1960s and 70s. These efforts were crowned by the enthusiasm and commitment of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as a global paragon of wisdom and compassion. With dozens of books in multiple languages and public sermons attended by tens of thousands of people, he and his students took the teachings of bodhicitta to an unprecedented level by spreading the teachings across the globe. At the same time, the Geluk tradition also actively adopted the transmission of bodhicitta teachings that were passed down from Patrul Rinpoche. These came via two main lines: through Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen (ཁུ་ནུ་བླ་མ་བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1894?–1977) to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, and through Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823–1905), who wrote an extensive commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' based on Patrul's teachings.

=== The Kagyu School ===
The teachings on bodhicitta coming from the Kadam school were also passed down through the Marpa Kagyu school. The focus of Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012–1097) and his disciple Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040–1123) remained on the esoteric tantric teachings that Marpa brought from India, having received them from teachers such as Nāropa and Maitrīpa. However, Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (སྒམ་པོ་པ་བསོད་ནམས་རིན་ཆེན་, 1079–1153), the third founding father of the Kagyu tradition from the Dakpo region of Tibet, combined the esoteric tantric teachings he received from Milarepa with the Kadam teachings he had received before becoming Milarepa's disciple.<ref>The school later took its new name Dakpo Kagyu after him.</ref> Thus, we see an effective pairing of the relative bodhicitta teachings from the Kadam tradition with the teachings on ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric texts and ''mahāmudrā'' transmission.

This synthesis by Gampopa is best seen in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (''དམ་ཆོས་ཡིད་བཞིན་ནོར་བུ་ཐར་པ་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་རྒྱན་''), which condenses the entire path to buddhahood into six topics, which he puts in the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The buddha-nature is the cause,
Precious and supreme human body, the support,
The virtuous master is the agent,
And his instructions, the expedient technique.
The result is the body of the perfect Buddha,
Who engages in actions for the world with no thought.<ref>རྒྱུ་ནི་བདེ་གཤེགས་སྙིང་པོ་སྟེ། །རྟེན་ནི་མི་ལུས་རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག །རྐྱེན་ནི་དགེ་བའི་བཤེས་གཉེན་ཡིན། །ཐབས་ནི་དེ་ཡི་གདམས་ངག་སྟེ། །འབྲས་བུ་རྫོགས་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྐུ། །ཕྲིན་ལས་རྟོག་མེད་འགྲོ་དོན་མཛད། ། Gampopa Sonam Rinchen, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'' (Thimphu: KMT, 2005), 3.</ref>
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Gampopa discusses both relative and ultimate bodhicitta in some detail in this work, stating concisely that the objects of relative bodhicitta are the state of enlightenment and sentient beings, and that ultimate bodhicitta is the realization of emptiness endowed with compassion that is clear, unperturbed, and free from mental elaborations.<ref>Gampopa, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'', 133 and 137.</ref> He then presents the procedures to obtain the bodhisattva vow, the precepts to follow, the definition and types of bodhicitta, and a detailed treatment of the six perfections as applied bodhicitta. This work would remain a core text for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Dakpo Kagyu tradition.

The four chief disciples of Gampopa started the four Kagyu schools and spread the teachings on bodhicitta. They include the aforementioned Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, who founded the Pakdru Kagyu; Barompa Darma Wangchuk (འབའ་རོམ་པ་དར་མ་དབང་ཕྱུག་, 1127–1199/1200), who established the Barom Kagyu; the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, who established the Karma Kagyu; and Zhang Yudrakpa (ཞང་གཡུ་བྲག་པ་, 1123–1193), who established the Tselpa Kagyu. Pakmodrupa is said to have viewed himself as a servant of all sentient beings and to have lived a life committed to strict morality and service to others. He wrote several works on bodhicitta, including a commentary on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows''<ref>Phakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, ''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa bzhugs pa'i dbu phyogs'', in Gsung 'bum phag mo gru pa rdo rje rgyal po (bris ma), (ga), 27–48, Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG15061_A5D6A7.</ref> and a treatise entitled ''Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva'', not to be confused with Śāntideva's work, although they have the same title in Tibetan. In another text called ''The Great Pearl Garland'' (''སེམས་བསྐྱེད་མུ་ཏིག་ཕྲེང་ཆེན་''), he wrote in praise of bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Other intentions and precepts are like well-cooked food but thoughts and precepts concerning bodhicitta are like the celestial cake with a hundred tastes. The mass of other merits is like a ruler from a castle, while bodhicitta is like the universal monarch ruling over all gods and men. The merit accrued from other virtues is like the light of a firefly, while the merit of bodhicitta is like the blazing disc of the sun.<ref>Pakmodrupa, ''Sems bskyed mu tig phreng chen'', in Gsung 'bum rdo rje rgyal po (N.p: N.p, 1998), 1:571–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23860_764630.</ref>
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Pakmodrupa's eight chief disciples took the teachings further by founding eight subschools of the Pakdru Kagyu. Among them are figures such as Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (འཇིག་རྟེན་མགོན་པོ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1143–1217), who founded the Drikung Kagyu, Lingrepa Pema Dorje (གླིང་རས་པ་པདྨ་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1128–1188), whose disciple Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (གཙང་པ་རྒྱ་རས་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1161–1211) founded the Drukpa Kagyu, and Taklungtangpa Tashi Pal (སྟག་ལུང་ཐང་པ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་དཔལ་, 1142–1209/1210). Jikten Gönpo established Drikung Thil, had a large following, and also wrote many texts on the cultivation of bodhicitta. ''The Experiential Hymns on the Fivefold Mahāmudrā'' (''ཕྱག་རྒྱ་ཆེན་པོ་ལྔ་ལྡན་གྱི་རྟོགས་པའི་མགུར་'') is perhaps the most well-known work. Only five verses, it starts with the following:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If the steed of love and compassion
Does not run for the benefit of others,
It will not be rewarded in the assembly of gods and humans.
Attend, therefore, to the preliminaries.<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེའི་རྟ་ཕོ་ལ། །གཞན་ཕན་གི་དཀྱུས་ཐོག་མ་བཅད་ན། །ཁྲོམ་ལྷ་མིའི་འོར་ཆེ་མི་འབྱུང་བས། །སེམས་སྔོན་འགྲོ་འདི་ལ་ནན་ཏན་མཛོད།།. See Karma Phuntsho, trans., ''Jikten Sumgön's Fivefold Path of Mahāmudrā'' (''Phyag rgya chen po lnga ldan rtogs pa'i mgur''), Buddha-Nature: A Tsadra Foundation Project, recent essays, posted October 2021, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Recent_Essays/Post-50.</ref>
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Like Jikten Gönpo, Tsangpa Gyare, the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu, became a highly influential Kagyu master and spread the teachings on bodhicitta widely. He is said to have sent many waves of students across the Himalayas so that the Drukpa Kagyu teachings could spread across vast distances—as far as a vulture can fly in eighteen days. It has been said in a highly exaggerated claim that half of humanity are followers of the Drukpa Kagyu tradition, half of them paupers, and half of the paupers accomplished saints. The upper Drukpas, went another panegyrical claim, are as many as stars in the sky, the lower Drukpas are as many as the particles of dust on the earth, and the middle Drukpa tradition has 2500 leading hierarchs who are entitled to parasols over their head. No doubt, the teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread widely through the works of Tsangpa Gyare and his followers. Tsangpa Gyare remarked in one of his pieces of advice:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If bodhicitta is not cultivated, all meritorious activities, like an offering of flour to demons will throw one to the currents of worldly concerns.<ref>བྱང་སེམས་རྒྱུད་ལ་མ་སྐྱེས་ན། །བསོད་ནམས་བདུད་ཀྱི་ཕྱེ་གཏོར་འདིས། །ཆོས་བརྒྱད་ཆུ་ལ་བསྐུར་ཉེན་གདའ། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''<i>'</i>Gro mgon rin po che's gsung mgur gyi rim pa'', in 'Gro ba’i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23782_A9B6DF.</ref>
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"If one had compassion like a shepherd," he said, "one would care for both the good and bad."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེ་ལུག་རྫི་འདྲ་ན་བཟང་ངན་མེད་པར་བསྐྱང་སྟེ་མཆི། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''Tsogs chos mno ‘khor ma che ba'', in 'Gro ba'i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 9b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN2232_A2AF3F.</ref>

A leading disciple of Gampopa was Dusum Khyenpa, who established a lineage that became highly influential in Tibetan religion and politics. He was later recognized as the First Karmapa. Dusum Khyenpa founded Tsurphu Monastery in Tibet and had a great following. He taught that Dharma is about benefiting sentient beings and emphasized the importance of loving-kindness and compassion as part of the Mahāyāna path. But it was his successors who excelled in the scholarship on bodhicitta theory and practice. The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (ཀརྨ་པཀྵི་, 1204–1283), mentioned bodhicitta in his writings, but Rangjung Dorje (རང་བྱུང་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1284–1339 ), the Third Karmapa, wrote many important works on ultimate bodhicitta. These included books on the perfection of wisdom, which covered the empty aspect of ultimate bodhicitta, and books on buddha-nature, which covered the luminous aspect of ultimate bodhicitta.

Among the seventeen Karmapas who have become heads of the Kamtsang Kagyu school so far, the Eighth Karmapa, Mikyö Dorje, wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' in which he discusses bodhicitta. He also composed many other short manuals and instructions for bodhicitta practice such as ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang sems kyi khrid'', In Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa: 2004), 19:383–98, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_5E5C5A.</ref> ''Cultivation of Bodhicitta in One Night'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang chub kyi sems sgom tshul zhag gcig ma'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:331–34, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_DE0419.</ref> and ''Instructions for Mind Training''.<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Blo sbyong gi khrid'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:281–96, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_C222BF.</ref> In ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'', he presents guidance on how to generate bodhicitta using a dialogue between Maitreya and Maitrīyogi as the main text. In it, he also gives instructions on how to combine the cultivation of bodhicitta with breathing. Mikyö Dorje also wrote the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka, Cittamātra, and Vajrayāna traditions.

Another major author on bodhicitta belonging to the Kamtshang Kagyu subschool was Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (དཔའ་བོ་གཙུག་ལག་ཕྲེང་བ་, 1504–1564), a historian and commentator on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Besides his commentary on this classical text on bodhicitta, he also authored liturgies for taking the bodhisattva vows for both relative and ultimate bodhicitta and instructions on how to turn both positive and negative life experiences into opportunities for mind training.

The sixteenth century saw another major Kagyu figure belonging to the Drukpa Kagyu subschool. Pema Karpo (པདྨ་དཀར་པོ་, 1527–1592), the Fourth Drukchen of the Drukpa Kagyu school, wrote commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>Pema Karpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'bru 'grel dbu ma'i lam gyi sgron ma'' (Nepal: Shree Gautam Buddha Vihara, 2017), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/a-lamp-for-the-middle-way/.</ref> and ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. He also composed a treatise on the three vows, the second chapter of which deals with the bodhisattva vow and precepts. He also wrote texts related to the lamrim stages of the path to enlightenment and many works on ''mahāmudrā'', which deal with the ultimate form of bodhicitta.

In the nineteenth century, a major Kagyu figure to champion all traditions of Tibetan Buddhist teachings, including the study and practice of bodhicitta, was Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (1813–1899). As a leading promoter of the Rime ecumenical movement in eastern Tibet alongside his teacher and colleague Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892), Kongtrul produced the five great treasuries, including The Treasury of Kagyu Tantras (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད་སྔགས་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Revealed Treasures (རིན་ཆེན་གཏེར་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Instructions (གདམས་ངག་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Knowledge (ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་ཁྱབ་མཛོད་), and The Treasury of Extensive Teachings (རྒྱ་ཆེན་བཀའ་མཛོད་). While the first three are mainly compilations of existing teachings, Kongtrul added many supplements to enrich the collections. In the Treasury of Instructions, he put together the rare and important meditation instructions of all major Tibetan Buddhist transmissions and also composed many instructions and liturgies himself. A good example of this is his composition of the liturgy to take the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka tradition as received via Śāntideva. The two last collections mainly consist of his own encyclopedic writings and include his commentary on Chekawa Yeshe Dorje's ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' and his ''Aspirational Prayer for Mind Training''.

The last great Kagyupa/Nyingmapa promoter of bodhicitta in India in the twentieth century was Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, although he was also more aligned to the Rime ecumenical tradition than a specific sect. Born in North India with deep knowledge of its languages and cultures, and trained in Tibet before Buddhism's decline there, Khunu Rinpoche was uniquely positioned to preserve and transmit bodhicitta teachings during Tibet's takeover by the People's Liberation Army and the subsequent refugee exodus. At such a critical moment, Khunu Rinpoche passed on the profound teachings on bodhicitta to his students, the most eminent among them being the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as the unparalleled paragon of bodhicitta study and practice in modern times. Khunu Rinpoche also composed his very deep and poetic treatise on bodhicitta entitled ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta''.<ref>See Khunu Lama, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, n.d), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ369499.</ref>

Around the same time, another prominent Kagyu master to promote bodhicitta through his writings was Gedun Rinchen (དགེ་འདུན་རིན་ཆེན་, 1926–1997), the sixty-ninth Je Khenpo, or Chief Abbot, of Bhutan. Gedun Rinchen wrote commentaries on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', notes on ''The Way of the Bodisattva'', and several short works on the cultivation of both relative and ultimate bodhicitta. He is perhaps the first Bhutanese author to also write extensively on topics related to bodhicitta, although several other Bhutanese would do so in the twenty-first century. Today, traditional scholarship on bodhicitta among the Kagyu school thrives with an unprecedented number of scholars and masters writing and teaching both in the Himalayan Buddhist areas and in the diaspora.

=== The Sakya School ===
The Sakya school was founded by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102) with the establishment of Sakya center in the Tsang region of Tibet in 1073. In subsequent generations, the school evolved to become renowned for their scholarship and their dedicated practice of the Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on the Path and Result in particular. This was also true with regard to their study and practice of bodhicitta. According to the tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (ས་ཆེན་ཀུན་དགའ་སྙིང་པོ་, 1092–1158), the son of Könchok Gyalpo and the first of the five eminent ancestors of Sakya, is said to have had a vision of Mañjuśrī in which he received the teachings known as ''Parting from the Four Attachments'' (''ཞེན་པ་བཞི་བྲལ་'').<ref>See Ngor pa dpon slob blo gter dbang po, ed., ''Zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Rgyud sde kun btus (glog klad par ma) (Kathmandu: Sachen International, Guru Lama, 2004), 23:727–30, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW27883_DDE525.</ref> The teaching went as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If you are attached to this life, you are not a true spiritual practitioner;
If you are attached to saṃsāra, you have no renunciation;
If you are attached to your own self-interest, you have no bodhicitta;
If there is grasping, you do not have the View.<ref>Rigpa Translations, trans., ''Instruction on Parting from the Four Attachments'', by Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (Lotsawa House, 2011), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/jetsun-drakpa-gyaltsen/parting-four-attachments.</ref>
}}
The third point on parting from the attachment to self-interest underscored the importance of the practice of bodhicitta and compassion in the Sakya spiritual practice. A generation after him, his son Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), who got trained at Sangpu Neutok under the illustrious scholar Chapa Chökyi Senge, carried on the scholarly tradition of Sakya and composed a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel pa'', in ''<i>'</i>Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung'', ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po (Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 68:20–209, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_A992FA.</ref> The younger son, Drakpa Gyaltsen (གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1147–1216), carried on the tradition and composed a summary of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum, reprinted from a set of Derge Parkhang woodblocks (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992-1993), 9:553–91, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_21D2B6.</ref> instructions on ''Parting from the Four Attachments'',<ref>See ''Rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan gyis mdzad pa'i zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Gdams ngag mdzod (Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1979–1981), 6:310–14, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20877_835B23.</ref> a manual for taking the refuge and bodhisattva vows,<ref>See ''Chos spyod rin chen phreng ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:511–46, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_BAE593.</ref> and an exegesis on ''The Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow''.<ref>See Sachen Kunga Nyingpo and Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa gsal bar ston pa shlo ka nyi shu pa'i rnam par bshad pa'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:547–604, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_4967BB.</ref>

The greatest scholar among the five sublime ancestors of Sakya, however, was Ngawang Kunga Gyaltsen, who is popularly known as Sakya Paṇḍita or Sakya Paṇchen (ས་སྐྱ་པཎྜི་ཏ་, 1182–1251). A scholar of exceptional caliber, Sakya Paṇḍita composed many original works, some of which discuss bodhicitta. These include ''Distinguishing the Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་གསུམ་རབ་དབྱེ་''),<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:1–96, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' (''ཐུབ་པའི་དགོངས་པ་རབ་ཏུ་གསལ་བ་''),<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:9–206, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> a liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow, and a collection of scriptural citations to substantiate the points related to bodhicitta.<ref>See ''Dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi cho ga'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:467–503, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_1F51EB and ''Byang chub kyi mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga'i lung sbyor'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:503–24, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_A6BF74.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita bestowed the bodhisattva vow according to the Middle Way tradition and followed this with teachings on ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' so that one's bodhicitta would not decrease but would increase. Yet, it was generally his critical and polemical discourses on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta that often attracted the greatest attention from scholars and readers. For instance, he argued that not all bodhisattva aspiration prayers would come true, for if they did, bodhisattvas would be constantly inflicted by the pain and suffering that they prayed would fall on them. However, he accepted the essential role that bodhicitta played in Buddhist soteriology. "If one mishandles the crux of bodhicitta, other dharma cannot make one fully enlightened,"<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་གནད་འཆུགས་ན། །ཆོས་གཞན་གྱིས་ནི་འཚང་མི་རྒྱ། ། ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:33, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> he argued. Furthermore, he writes,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If one has bodhicitta and skill in means,
Even if one indulges in the five sensory objects,
Such an act becomes an act of great virtue for a bodhisattva.
It is considered as sin by the hearers.<ref>འདོད་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་ལྔར་སྤྱོད་ཀྱང་། །ཐབས་མཁས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ལྡན་ན། །རྒྱལ་སྲས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ཆེན་ཡིན། །ཉན་ཐོས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་སྡིག་པར་གསུངས། ། See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref>
}}
In his ''Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' and the liturgy on the bodhisattva vow, he presents a brief historical account of the two main Mahāyāna traditions, a clear account of bodhicitta and its types, the ritual for receiving the bodhisattva vow, and the precepts that follow.<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita was succeeded by his nephew Chögyal Pakpa (ཆོས་རྒྱལ་འཕགས་པ་, 1235–1280), who followed his uncle to China and later became the court priest and tutor of Kubilai Khan. Chögyal Pakpa is said to have given the bodhicitta vow to large gatherings of 70,000 people during the Chumik convention in 1270 and to have also administered it to his Mongol disciples in the Yuan court.

The Sakya school, put in place by the five great masters, continued to grow through the works of many great figures on the Tibetan intellectual scene and the many monasteries and centers they founded. In the generation after Chögyal Pakpa, we see the rise of Butön Rinchen Drub (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་, 1290–1364), a Sakya scholar who became the head of Shalu Monastery and was also responsible for the compilation of the first Kangyur and Tengyur canons, today referred to as the Old Narthang Kangyur and Tengyur. Butön left behind a prodigious oeuvre that includes a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa byang chub kyi sems gsal bar byed pa zla ba'i 'od zer'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19:193–614, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_11394D.</ref> a summary of it,<ref>See ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19: 147–92, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_B2DED5.</ref> and a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''.<ref>''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rgya cher bshad pa lung gi snye ma'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy Of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 18:13–740, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_850C4C</ref> He also wrote one of the earliest and elaborate treatises on buddha-nature<ref>See, for example, ''Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 20:1–78, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_9E60DB.</ref> and numerous texts on Vajrayāna, covering ultimate bodhicitta.

An influential contemporary of Butön with a strong connection to the Sakya school was Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361). Initially associated with the Sakya school, Dölpopa undertook Kālacakra practice at Jomonang center, which eventually led him to his exposition of the philosophy of ''zhentong'' (''གཞན་སྟོང་''), or other emptiness. He wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rnam bshad mdo'i don bde blag tu rtogs pa'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon, 1990s?), 5:245–620, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_F64381.</ref> and original works such as ''The Mountain Dharma: Ocean of Definitive Meaning''<ref>See ''Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho zhes bya ba mthar thug thun mong ma yin pa'i man ngag'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 3:191–739, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_CC2A89.</ref> and ''The Fourth Council'',<ref>See ''Bka' bsdu bzhi pa'i don bstan rtsis chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 6:167–204, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_A37792.</ref> which elaborate an understanding of ultimate bodhicitta which is starkly different from the mainstream Sakya position. Dölpopa and his writings, which were carried on by the Jonang school, left behind a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist scholarship and practice.

In the fourteenth century, the Sakya school produced two outstanding scholars who both got trained at Sangpu Neutok. The first was Yaktön Sangye Pal (གཡག་སྟོན་སངས་རྒྱས་དཔལ་, 1350–1414), one of the six scholars known as the Six Ornaments of Tibet who wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Sher phyin mngon rtogs rgyan rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20485.</ref> but did not write any independent work on bodhicitta. The second scholar, Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (1367–1449), in contrast, wrote commentaries on major Indian treatises, including ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>Rongtön Sheja Kunrik, ''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rnam bshad tshig don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 3:3–774, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_96A5D5.</ref> and ''Introduction to the Middle Way''.<ref>''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don rnam nges'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 6:383–752, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_ACD85B.</ref> He also composed many short works on the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta, including a short text containing instructions on how to put ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into practice.<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug sgom rim rin chen rgyan phreng'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 1:508–10, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_876785.</ref>

Scholastic and polemical writings in the Sakya school reached unprecedented heights during the time of Rongtön's students, which included three of the most renowned scholars of their time—Taktsang Sherab Rinchen (སྟག་ཚང་ཤེས་རབ་རིན་ཆེན་, 1405–1477), Śākya Chokden (ཤཱཀྱ་མཆོག་ལྡན་, 1428–1507), and Gorampa Sönam Senge (གོ་རམས་པ་བསོད་ནམས་སེང་གེ་, 1429–1489). Taktsang Sherab Rinchen composed two works on the sciences and philosophical tenet systems and became a vocal critic of Tsongkhapa’s understanding of emptiness but did not write anything significant on bodhicitta. Śākya Chokden wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo dang mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel dang bcas pa'i lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don rgya mtsho'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 3:7–192, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_B4FF1A.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See ''Dbu ma 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don gnad kyi ṭī ka'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 5:291–486, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_D11306.</ref> and on Sakya Paṇḍita's ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'i le'u gsum pa rig 'dzin sdom pa'i skabs kyi 'bel gtam rnam par nges pa legs bshad gser gyi thur ma'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 7:7–244, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_E519EB.</ref> He also wrote a commentary on ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' by Langri Thangpa.<ref>Shākya Chokden, ''Blo sbyong tshig rkang brgyad pa'i rnam bshad don gsum rab tu gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 23:57–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_C4DA34.</ref> An independent thinker, Śākya Chokden introduced a new interpretation of buddha-nature, and his philosophical interpretation often differed from early Sakya masters. Because of this, his colleague Gorampa Sönam Senge, a sharp commentator and debater, became the main authority who established and carried on the Sakya philosophical tradition. Like his teacher Rongtön and his colleague Śākya Chokden, Gorampa wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i dka' ba'i gnas rnam par bshad pa yum don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 6:7–756, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_B6315B.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i dkyus kyi sa bcad pa dang gzhung so so'i dka' ba'i gnas la dpyad pa lta ba ngan sel'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 5:479–758, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_73D3D6.</ref> and also ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Sdom pa gsum gyi rab tu dbye ba'i rnam bshad rgyal ba'i gsung rab kyi dgongs pa gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 9:7–436, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_6EA702.</ref> Gorampa, Śākya Chokden, and Taktsang Sherab Rinchen would become known as Goshāktaksum, a trio of Sakya scholars who were among the harshest critics of Tsongkhapa and his Geluk school of thought.

Another prolific scholar around this time, though not directly related to Sakya, was Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal (བོ་དོང་པཎ་ཆེན་ཕྱོགས་ལས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་, 1376–1451). Chokle Namgyal left behind perhaps the largest collection of writings in Tibet, including commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Dpal de kho na nyid 'dus pa'i rgya mtsho chen po las phar phyin gyi dka' 'grel lung gi snye ma'', in Bo dong phyogs las rnam rgyal gyi gsung 'bum gsar rnyed skor, Par gzhi dang po (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 2:5–386, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD97485_3FDD00.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, Gsung 'bum phyogs las rnam rgyal (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1969–1981), vol. 17, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22103_5D3941.</ref> and an exegetical commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa rab tu gsal ba'', in 'Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung, ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po, Par gzhi dang po (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 73:221–560, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_6A3765.</ref> Scholarship on bodhicitta thrived with the rise of scholasticism from the fourteenth century. The theory of bodhicitta was discussed as the first of the seventy topics covered in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and the practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya tradition took place through the bodhisattva vow and through the instruction on ''Parting from the Four Attachments''. The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya school especially flourished and would culminate in the works of masters such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the Sakya figure who rose to be the leading advocate of the Rime ecumenical movement in the nineteenth century. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo bequeathed an enormous collection of writings that included many dozens of texts on bodhicitta. While he did not write commentaries on the main classical texts as other scholarly Sakya masters did, he composed many works concerning the practice of bodhicitta in the form of practical instructions, liturgies, and historical accounts.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings beyond Asia ==
Although some early cultural transmissions and interactions between Asia and the West occurred in ancient times, the proper transmission of Buddhism, particularly Mahāyāna teachings, to the West has taken place only since the early twentieth century. The general trend of globalization facilitated by the advancement in communication technology and the travel industry, political upheavals such as World War II and the Korean War, and the rise of communism in China, Vietnam, and Tibet all led to the migration of people from Mahāyāna countries in Asia to the West and to the spread of bodhicitta teachings. Western interest in Buddhist cultures was at first largely driven by cultural curiosity and academic interest, often motivated by a colonial agenda. However, this changed by the middle of the twentieth century with the significant growth of serious interest in Eastern spirituality, the introduction of Buddhist Studies in Western universities as part of religious and theological studies, and the rise of Dharma centers for practicing Buddhists.

The initial transmission of Mahāyāna teachings to the West began with the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning of the twentieth century. Figures such as Soyen Shaku (1860–1919) and Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966) brought Zen Buddhism and the Mahāyāna teachings from the Sino-Japanese tradition, while explorer-writers such as Evans Wentz (1878–1965) and Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969) introduced the West to Tibetan Buddhism. These were followed by a rising number of scholars in leading academic institutions, many of whom undertook sustained and in-depth study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the same time, numerous Asian Buddhist teachers from Tibet and East Asia started to establish Dharma centers, particularly in Europe and North America, where people with an interest in Buddhism took up their spiritual practice. Such a diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in general and teachings on bodhicitta in particular was further enhanced by the rising popularity of figures such as the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987).

One way to gauge the spread of the teachings on bodhicitta is to look at the transmission of the main classics on bodhicitta—namely, Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Compendium of Training''. Early translations of these two works, which gained much popularity in India soon after their composition in the eighth century, appeared in Tibetan and Chinese in the ninth and tenth centuries respectively. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' was initially translated into Tibetan by Kawa Paltsek in the eighth century and into Chinese by Tiān Xīzāi (d.1000) in 985 CE. The Tibetan translation went through subsequent revisions at least twice in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by Lotsāwa Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055) and Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) respectively. The text was then translated into Mongolian by Čosgi Odser (ཆོས་ཀྱི་འོད་ཟེར་, fl. 1305–1321) in 1305. ''The Compendium of Training'' was translated into Tibetan by Yeshe De (eighth century) and later revised by Ngok Loden Sherab. It was translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa in the first half of the eleventh century.

In the centuries after their composition, both of these texts appear to have spread quickly beyond North India to places such as Kashmir and Kathmandu. For example, the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project has found forty-one manuscripts related to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', including twelve palm-leaf manuscripts, and the earliest one (located in Kathmandu) dated to 1180 CE. The only existing Sanskrit manuscript of ''The Compendium of Training'', now housed in Cambridge University Library, was also acquired from Kathmandu.

Although these texts attracted much attention in India, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and other traditional Buddhist areas, their transmission to the West occurred only around the beginning of the twentieth century. The first publication of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the Western world took place in Russia in 1889 when Ivan P. Minayev reviewed and published the Sanskrit text using the manuscript brought by Brian Houghton Hodgson from Kathmandu.<ref>I. P. Minayev, "La doctrine du salut dans le Bouddhisme posterieur," ''Zapiski'', no. 4 (1889).</ref> Similarly, ''The Compendium of Training'' was first published through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902 by Cecil Bendall, who used the Sanskrit manuscript obtained by Daniel Wright in 1875 from Kathmandu.<ref>Cecil Bendall, ed., ''Çikshāsamuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhistic Teaching Compiled by Çāntideva Chiefly from Earlier Mahāyāna-Sūtras'' (St Pétersburg: Commissionaires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1902), xxiv.</ref> The first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into a European language was undertaken by Louis de la Vallée Poussin, who translated the text in stages from 1892 onward and completed it in 1907. This was followed by five different translations into French in the twentieth century. Lionel David Barnett produced the first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into English in 1909, although he only did an abridged version. The first complete English translation of the verses appears to have been carried out by Marion Matics.<ref>Marion Leonidas Matics, ''Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The Bodhicaryāvatāra of the Buddhist Poet Śāntideva'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970).</ref> Since then, there have been some seventeen different English translations of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', and writings on this text continue to grow. It is today found in over a dozen European languages. It was also translated into Japanese by Ekai Kawaguchi (1866–1945) and published in 1921, and translations can be found in many other Asian languages.

Śāntideva’s other main work, ''The Compendium of Training'', was edited and published for the first time in the West by Cecil Bendell in 1902. He also started the translation, but it was finished by W. H. D. Rouse and published in 1922. As regards the translation of ''The Compendium of Training'' into other languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930. Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered it into modern Japanese from the Chinese version. The latest and most popular translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' today is the one by the Padmakara Translation Group and that of ''The Compendium of Training'' is the one by Charles Goodman.

Through these academic and religious translations and numerous other writings on bodhicitta, the teachings and practice of bodhicitta have today spread widely in many continents. Yet, the biggest impetus for the promotion of bodhicitta across the world has come from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), an ardent promoter of bodhicitta doctrine and practice. Throughout the decades following the exodus of Tibetans into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lama has tirelessly taught and written about bodhicitta and spread the teachings to large global audiences. Interest in Tibetan Buddhism in general and the bodhicitta teachings has grown rapidly as these teachings, which were previously inaccessible to foreigners, have become easily available.

Moreover, the teachings on bodhicitta and the bodhisattva ideal continue to appeal to modern progressive sensibilities, leading to their adoption and application even beyond religious circles. With influential leaders such as the Dalai Lama promoting these ideas, the rich tradition of bodhicitta—the way of wisdom and compassion—continues to spread in different parts of the world in the twenty-first century in a sustained effort to curb materialism, individualism, egocentricity, aggression, and environmental degradation, which are rampant in the world. This web resource contains extensive materials on bodhicitta in one place, launching a new chapter in the history of bodhicitta teachings. It provides timely support to help students and practitioners easily enhance their knowledge, deepen their understanding, and strengthen their practice.
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Articles/History of Bodhicitta Teachings

2026-09-01T15:25:05Z

KPhuntsho:

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== The Origins of Bodhicitta ==
Tradition would have it that bodhicitta existed since time immemorial, as all buddhas must start their journey by becoming a bodhisattva and one can only do so by cultivating bodhicitta—the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. However, from a historical perspective, the term ''bodhicitta'' and the idea of taking all sentient beings to the state of full enlightenment only emerges with the rise of the Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE. There is no explicit mention of the term ''bodhicitta'' in the Buddhist canon preserved in the Pāli language, which most scholars consider to be the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures.

One can find in the Pāli canon, particularly in the section on past buddhas and the Jātaka tales, references to the historical Buddha generating the first thoughts to become a buddha in his former lifetimes. A good example is the ascetic Sumedha, one of the previous rebirths of the historical Buddha, taking the vow to seek perfect enlightenment for the first time in the presence of Buddha Dīpaṃkara, who confirms his success in the future through a prediction.<ref>See "Sumedha's Wish" and "The History of Buddha Dīpaṅkara" in ''Chronicles of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhavaṃsa'') under Minor Collections (''Khuddakanikāya''), at suttacentral.net, https://suttacentral.net/bv?view=normal&lang=en. Retrieved on May 5, 2025.</ref> Similarly, we also find the story of the Buddha as the brahmin Jotipāla, who takes the vow once again in the presence of Buddha Kāśyapa and receives a prediction from him that he will one day become a buddha. These stories, along with many others about the Buddha as a bodhisattva and his aim to attain perfect enlightenment, are considered by later Buddhist thinkers to exemplify bodhicitta. No doubt, these accounts in the early canonical works contributed to the development of the concept and practice of bodhicitta in later times.

It is notable, however, that the early Buddhist scriptures portray the commitment to seek the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as a privilege reserved for only a select few individuals of high capacity. They do not explicitly mention the wish to pursue enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, nor do they articulate the noble aim of leading all sentient beings to the state of perfect enlightenment. Rather, in these early teachings, the focus is on the pursuit of individual liberation. Although some exceptional beings become fully enlightened buddhas with great compassion for the world, the teachings do not highlight the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta. The compassionate intention to benefit the world becomes more explicit in later times.

The ''Mahāvastu'' (the "Great Event" or "Great Story"), a book from around the second century BCE belonging to the Lokottaravādin school, is perhaps one of the earliest texts to explicitly mention the term ''bodhicitta'' and to present both aspects of bodhicitta: the aim for perfect enlightenment and wish to do so out of compassion for sentient beings.<ref>Jeom-suk Park claims that this appearance of bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' is indeed the first appearance of the term. See Jeom-suk Park, "Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism," ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 51, no. 2 (March 2003): 139.</ref> The verses that mention bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' (MVU) read as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na dhyānahānir bhavate kadācit /
na bodhicittaṃ jahate kadācit // (MVU 2.382)<ref>See Emmanuel Fauré, ed., ''Mahāvastu-avādana'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 2.382, 2.392, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. The #2 here stands for part 2 of the ''Mahāvastu'' as it has been arranged on GRETIL.</ref>

Never is there any falling off in meditation, and never
does he abandon the thought of enlightenment.<ref>See J. J. Jones, trans., ''The Mahāvastu'' (London: Luzac, 1952), 2:344.</ref>
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na bodhicittaṃ vijahati so kadācit /
na khaṇḍaśīlo bhavati asaṃvṛto vā // (MVU 2.392)

Never does he give up the thought of enlightenment.
He never becomes corrupt of morals nor dissolute.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 2:351, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>
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The accounts of the previous lives of the historical Buddha and of Buddha Maitreya (the future Buddha) in the ''Mahāvastu'' chronicle how, for example, during the time of Buddha Suprabhāsa, the historical Buddha as the monk Abhiya and Maitreya as King Vairocana made the aspiration to reach the state of perfect enlightenment and did so out of compassion to benefit the world. Such an aspiration to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of the world gradually evolved into the concept of bodhicitta with the emergence of Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE.
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|quote-text=yasmiṃ samaye satvā bhavensuḥ alenā atrāṇā aśaraṇā aparāyaṇā utsadalolā utsadadoṣā utsadamohā akuśalān dharmā samādāya vartensuḥ yobhūyena ca apāyapratipūrakā bhavensu tasmiṃ kāle tasmiṃ samaye aham anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyehaṃ // taṃ bhaveyaṃ bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukaṃpāya mahato janakāyasyārthāya hitāya sukhāya devānāṃ ca manuṣyāṇāṃ ca // (MVU 1.61)<ref>Fauré, ''Mahāvastu'', 1.161, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>

When beings come to be without refuge, support, protection, shelter, and succour, when they become characterized by fickleness, malice, and folly, when they live in accordance with wrong standards of conduct and generally go to crowd the worlds of woe, then may I awake to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. May I do so for the benefit and welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world, for the sake of the multitude, for the good of devas and men.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 1:50.</ref>
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The earliest Mahāyāna texts to discuss bodhicitta are said to be ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'' (''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'')<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_aSTAdazasAhasrikA-prajJApAramitA55-82.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>’</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fols. 1b1–286a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0012.</ref> and ''The Verses that Summarize the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'').<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8. See Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, ''Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 1.5, 5.5-8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ratnaguNasaMcayagAthA.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See also, ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fols. 1b1-19b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0013.</ref> These texts date to around 100 BCE and both contain the term ''bodhicitta'' and promote the concept of seeking enlightenment out of compassion and love for sentient beings.<ref>See ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'', 16.5 (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fol. 10a and ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 16b.</ref> The term ''bodhicitta'' appears at the beginning of ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', when Subhūti, through the blessings of the Buddha, submits to the Buddha that a bodhisattva "should train to not have pride in having bodhicitta, for such mind is not mind, but mind is by nature luminous."<ref>འདི་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་དེས་ཀྱང་རློམ་སེམས་སུ་མི་བགྱིད་པ་དེ་ལྟར་བསླབ་པར་བགྱིའོ། །དེ་ཅིའི་སླད་དུ་ཞེ་ན། འདི་ལྟར་སེམས་དེ་ནི་སེམས་མ་མཆིས་པ་སྟེ། སེམས་རང་བཞིན་ནི་འོད་གསལ་བ་ལགས་སོ།། ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 3a.</ref>

[[File:Text sample 1 for history of bodhicitta.jpg|900px|class=w-100 h-auto my-4 border rounded|]]

Similarly, in another passage from this same text, which Gareth Sparham calls the "Origin-Passage,"<ref>Gareth Sparham, "Indian Altruism: A Study of the Terms ''bodhicitta'' and ''cittotpāda''," ''Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15, no. 2 (1992): 224–42.</ref> Subhūti advises Śāriputra that a bodhisattva should not think of an action as hardship because one cannot serve the multitude of sentient beings with such a thought.<ref>See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'', fol. 16b. See Edward Conze, T''he Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary'' (Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation, 1975), 93.</ref> Only with the feeling of joy and love toward sentient beings, as though they were one’s father, mother, brother, or sister, will one be able to work for countless sentient beings and cultivate the intention to take all of these beings out of suffering for all times, just as one wishes to take oneself out of suffering for all times.

What, then, could have led to the development of such a noble and high ideal as bodhicitta? Dorji Wangchuk, in his authoritative work on bodhicitta entitled ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study on the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'', speculates that the rise of the bodhicitta concept may have been "driven by a psychological need of the Buddhists to compensate for the loss of the historical Buddha."<ref>See Dorji Wangchuk, ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 89.</ref> After the Buddha’s passing, some of his followers may have sought a substitute for the historical Buddha beyond the corpus of teachings and the Saṅgha community, who, as custodians of the Vinaya discipline that the Buddha designated as his representative, were entrusted with preserving his legacy after his departure. This may have been more common among those who chose to follow a hermetic and reclusive life outside the monastic institutions or sought a different understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and an alternative spiritual approach to what the mainstream monastic establishment offered. The Mahāyāna system is said to have emerged as a result of such a tendency,<ref>See Paul Williams, ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'' (London: Routledge, 2009).</ref> and it is likely that the need for a present buddha figure was strong among such people. In order to have a buddha, one must have a bodhisattva who aspires to become a buddha, and for that one needs to have the resolve or motivation to become a buddha. Thus, the concept of bodhicitta.

Gombrich and Wangchuk also argue that the Buddhist scriptures present the ultimate truth as being eternal and unchanging.<ref>Wangchuk, ''Resolve'', 78. Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'' (London: Routledge, 2006), 121.</ref> Because this truth remains immanent and eternal, individuals who achieve such realization emerge periodically throughout history. This understanding opens the possibility for other persons to attain the same enlightenment that the historical Buddha achieved. Thus, we see the emergence of a plurality of buddhas in early Buddhist teachings, which present six and twenty-four past buddhas as well as future buddhas such as Maitreya. With the rise of Mahāyāna, the pantheon of buddhas increases, and not only are there numerous past and future buddhas, one sees the idea of numerous present buddhas dwelling in different buddha realms situated in the vast expanse of the new Mahāyāna cosmology. With numerous buddhas as examples, cultivating bodhicitta to achieve buddhahood becomes a central theme.

Bodhicitta, as some scholars have argued, was also an expansion and improvement on the concept of ''prathamacitta'', or the initial resolve made by the Buddha to seek perfect enlightenment. This resolve is also presented as ''praṇidhāna'' (Pāli: ''paṇidhāna''), or the earnest aspiration to attain enlightenment. It is also thought to be an enhanced elucidation of ''adhyāśaya'' (Pāli: ''ajjhāsaya''), or the noble intention to earnestly seek enlightenment or benefit others. Some scholars considered ''adhyāśaya'' to be an abbreviation of ''anuttarāyāṃ samyaksambodhau cittam utpādayati'', or the generation of the thought of the unsurpassed perfect buddhahood. Many early Mahāyāna sources also contain the term ''cittotpāda''—the cultivation of the mind—which refers to the generation of the intention to seek perfect enlightenment. In later works, the terms ''bodhicitta'', ''cittotpāda'', and ''bodhicittotpāda'' came to be used synonymously, although they may have had different referents and connotations in the early period of Mahāyāna.

Whatever the main basis of the technical term ''bodhicitta'', the topic of bodhicitta was repeated and further elaborated in other sūtras belonging to the perfection of wisdom class and numerous other Mahāyāna sūtras that emerged in the subsequent centuries. The main sūtras containing the full-blown teachings on bodhicitta include ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra'') in the ''Avataṃsaka'' collection, ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''), ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' (''Sāgaramatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), ''The Questions of Ugraḥ Sūtra'' (''Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra''), ''The Questions of Vīradatta'' (''Vīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'' (''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''), and ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'' (''Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra''), to mention a few. In these sūtras, we see the development of the concept of bodhicitta along with the notions of compassion and wisdom. In many sources, such as ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' and ''The Basket of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisatvapiṭaka''), bodhicitta also refers to the ultimate nature of things or the luminous nature of the mind, which Wangchuk categorizes as ontological bodhicitta.

Besides the numerous canonical Mahāyāna sūtras that discuss and promote bodhicitta, we also see the rise of commentarial literature which deals with the theory and practice of bodhicitta. The foremost champion of the Mahāyāna teachings that included the concept of bodhicitta was Nāgārjuna, who lived roughly between 150 to 250 CE. In his ''Praise of the Diamond Mind'' (''Cittavajrastava'') and ''Praise of Dharmadhātu'' (''Dharmadhātustava''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Cittavajrastava'' (''Sems kyi rdo rje bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1121, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 69b4–70a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1121, and ''Dharmadhātustava'' (''Chos kyi dbyings su bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1118, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 1.63b5–67b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1118.</ref> Nāgārjuna uses the term ''bodhicitta'' to refer to the nature of mind and ultimate reality. However, in ''The Commentary on Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna, he presents bodhicitta as "the thought motivated by great compassion."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེས་བརླན་པའི་སེམས་ཀྱིས་ནི། །འབད་པས་བསྒོམ་པར་བྱ་བ་ཡིན། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittavivaraṇa'' (''Byang chub sems kyi 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1800, rgyud, vol. 35, ngi, fol. 38b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1800.</ref> This, in later times, came to be called ''relative bodhicitta''. In his ''Compendium of Sūtras'' (''Sūtrasamuccaya''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' (''Mdo kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3934, dbu ma, vol. 110, ki, fols. 141b1–215a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3934.</ref> Nāgārjuna presents numerous citations from sūtras to illustrate the rarity and importance of many aspects of Mahāyāna practice, including the supreme thought of awakening, or bodhicitta. Another text on how to take the vow of bodhicitta entitled ''The Ritual for Generating Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādavidhi''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi'' (''Byang chub tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga''), in Derge Tengyur D3966, dbu ma, vol. 112, gi, fols. 237a4–239a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3966.</ref> which contains some detail on the bodhisattva aspirations, is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The Chinese tradition also ascribes to Nāgārjuna a text called ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'' (''Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun''),<ref>For an English translation of this text, see Minoru Kiyota, trans., "The Bodhicitta Śāstra," in ''Esoteric Texts'' (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2015), 103–29.</ref> a tantric text which contains the concept of bodhicitta both as the altruistic mind to take all beings to perfect enlightenment and as the ultimate nature of the mind, or buddha-nature. There is no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of this text.

However, the text attributed to Nāgārjuna which explicitly discusses bodhicitta is his discourse to his royal disciple, claimed to be a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty who ruled in the Deccan plateau in the second century. In fact, Nāgārjuna wrote two homilies, but his ''Epistle to a Friend'' (''suhṛllekhaḥ''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''suhṛllekhaḥ'' (''bshes pa'i spring yig''), in Derge Tengyur D4182,spring yig, vol. 173, nge, fols. 40b4–46b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4182.</ref> does not discuss bodhicitta as does his other work, ''The Precious Garland'' (''Ratnavāli'').<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref> This work discusses bodhicitta, the bodhisattva practices, the stages on the bodhisattva path, and the bodhisattva goal.

In addition to these texts, the Tibetan Tengyur also contains several aspirational prayers for bodhisattva practice that are attributed to Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna’s teachings on bodhicitta, which tradition claims he received from Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom, was passed down mainly through the adherents of the Middle Way school that he initiated. This tradition came to be known as the Profound View tradition and was espoused and propagated by many Buddhist masters from famous universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.

Another famous lineage of bodhicitta teachings known as the Vast Conduct tradition was passed down from Asaṅga (fourth century), who is said to have received the teachings from Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to this tradition, Asaṅga propitiated Maitreya for twelve long years without receiving a vision of Maitreya, even in a dream. Disappointed, Asaṅga gives up the practice of propitiation and leaves his hermitage when he encounters a wretched bitch in agony as her rotting hind is being consumed by maggots. Out of intense compassion, Asaṅga feeds a bit of his own flesh to the dog and uses his tongue to take out the maggots. Disgusted, he does so with closed eyes, but his tongue touches the ground instead of the dog, and Lo, as he opens his eyes, he sees before him Maitreya with his sublime aura. "You have no compassion," Asaṅga complains to Maitreya for not even showing up in his dream, although he worshiped Maitreya for a dozen years. Maitreya tells Asaṅga that he has been near Asaṅga all along but Asaṅga could not see him. Having removed some karmic obscurations after a long retreat, Asaṅga could see Maitreya as a wretched dog. Then, as compassion for the dog stirred within him, Asaṅga removed the obscurations in his mind, making him able to see the divine figure of Maitreya. Maitreya asked Asaṅga to carry him on his shoulder and ask people what they could see. Most people in the town saw nothing, but an old woman saw him carrying a miserable bitch. Subsequently, Maitreya is said to have taken Asaṅga miraculously to Tuṣita Heaven and to have given him the teachings on Maitreya's five works. The three longer treatises of these five works—namely, ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' (''Abhisamayālaṃkāra''), ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), and ''The Ultimate Continuum of Mahāyāna'' (''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'')—varyingly discuss the concept of bodhicitta as an altruistic thought of enlightenment or the nature of one's mind.

In ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', bodhicitta is discussed as the first of the seventy topics related to the Buddhist ground, path, and fruition. We find in this book a very clear definition of bodhicitta, although it uses the term ''cittotpāda''.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=''Cittotpāda'' is the wish to attain the perfect full enlightenment for the sake of others.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་གཞན་དོན་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་རྫོགས་པའི་བྱང་ཆུབ་འདོད། ། Maitreya, ''Abhisamayālaṃkāra'' (''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3786, vol. 80, sher phyin, ka, fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3786.</ref>
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This verse remains the most concise and popular definition of bodhicitta. The text also breaks down bodhicitta into twenty-two types using similes and aligns them to the progression of the bodhisattva path. This same concept is further elaborated in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), in which a whole chapter is dedicated to discussing bodhicitta.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshigs le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, vol. 123, sems tsam, phi, fols. 1a1–39a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref> These two texts by Maitreya and the commentaries on them contain the most detailed theoretical discussions on bodhicitta. In ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', we find not only discussions on relative bodhicitta (i.e., the altruistic thought of enlightenment) but also on ultimate bodhicitta, which is the pristine wisdom discerning the ultimate nature of things.

Asaṅga elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta through his own ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi''), which is a part of his larger work entitled ''The Stages of Yoga Practice'' (''Yogācārabhūmi''). In this work, he points out that bodhicitta has two specific objects.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Therefore, the cultivation of the mind [of enlightenment] aims at enlightenment and also at the welfare of sentient beings.<ref>Asaṅga, ''Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ'' (''Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa las byang chub sems dpa'i sa''), in Derge Tengyur D4037, vol. 129, sems tsam, wi, fol. 7b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4037.</ref>
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It is clear from this statement that Asaṅga is commenting on the definition of bodhicitta provided by Maitreya in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and also in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''. Both Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' and Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' also present the causes and conditions for cultivating bodhicitta. The latter became the main source for the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow in the Vast Conduct tradition. Passed down through Asaṅga, this line of transmission for taking the bodhisattva vow became frequently, though not exclusively, associated with the Mind Only/Yoga Practice school of Mahāyāna. The tradition later became known as the Vast Conduct tradition and was propagated by some of the eminent teachers of bodhicitta.

Besides Nāgārjuna and Asaṅga, the Tibetan tradition also includes Aśvaghoṣa among the early proponents of bodhicitta. Aśvaghoṣa, who is generally believed to have lived sometime within the first two centuries of the common era, was an acclaimed Buddhist poet, dramatist, and the author of poetic works such as ''The Acts of the Buddha'' (''Buddhacarita''), ''Beautiful Nanda'' (''Saundarananda''), and ''The Story of Śāriputra'' (''Śāriputraprakaraṇa''). The Chinese tradition ascribes ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'' (''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra'', ''Dasheng qixin lun'') to Aśvaghoṣa, although modern scholars contest this attribution. The Tibetan Tengyur canon contains two works on relative and ultimate bodhicitta that are considered to be by Aśvaghoṣa,<ref>Aśvaghoṣa, ''Saṃvṛtibodhicittabhāvanopadeśavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge pad+ma spungs pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3911, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 13b4–15a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3911, and ''Paramārthabodhicittabhāvanākramavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Don dam pa byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge rin po che'i sgron ma zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3912, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 15a6–16b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3912.</ref> but there is no known record of the transmission of teachings on bodhicitta from Aśvaghoṣa.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings in India and Beyond ==
It is not clear when the names given to the two traditions of Mahāyāna teachings—the Vast Conduct tradition and the Profound View tradition—were introduced, and the names appear to have undergone different phases. However, written records clearly point to the actual teachings on bodhicitta being passed down through generations of Nāgārjuna's and Asaṅga's followers. For the Profound View school, after Nāgārjuna, his disciple Āryadeva promoted bodhicitta in his writings, particularly in ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yogic Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'').<ref>Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'' (''Bstan bcos bzhi brgya pa zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3846, vol. 97, dbu ma, tsha, fols. 1a1–18a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> "The cultivation of the initial thought of enlightenment," he claimed, "outshines even the merit which can make all beings on earth universal monarchs."<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་སེམས་དང་པོ། །ས་སྟེངས་སྐྱེ་བོ་ཐམས་ཅད་ནི། །འཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བ་ཉིད་འགྱུར་བ། །དེ་དག་བསོད་ནམས་ལས་ཁྱད་འཕགས། ། Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'', fol. 6a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> Similarly, Bhāvaviveka (ca. 500–570 CE) composed his ''Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā''), devoting the opening chapter to the topic of bodhicitta. In it he writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Bodhicitta is the seed of buddhas
Adorned with loving-kindness,
Compassion and knowledge.
The wise shall not abandon it.<ref>བྱམས་པ་དང་ནི་སྙིང་རྗེ་དང་། །ཤེས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྒྱན་པ་ཡི། །སངས་རྒྱས་ས་བོན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Bhāvaviveka, ''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā'' (''Dbu ma'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3855, vol. 98, dbu ma, dza, fols. 2a–2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3855.</ref>
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Candrakīrti, the author of ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''),<ref>Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, vol. 102, dbu ma, 'a, fols. 201b1–219a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta in the context of the Mahāyāna path, particularly as understood in the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna. Although Candrakīrti had issues with Bhāvaviveka on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s logical procedures to establish the ultimate truth, they shared the same zest for underscoring the importance of bodhicitta on the bodhisattva path to perfect enlightenment. Candrakīrti organized his famous work using the ten stages of the bodhisattva path and the different levels of bodhicitta. Right at the outset of the work, he declares that bodhicitta, compassion, and the understanding of nonduality are the causes of bodhisattvas.

The most influential champion of bodhicitta teachings in India, however, was undoubtedly Śāntideva, the author of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'')<ref>Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fols. 1a1–40a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> and ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'').<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 3a2–194b52, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. See also the verse summary: ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 1a1–3a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref> Śāntideva probably lived around the beginning of the eighth century CE and was likely born in North India, although we have no evidence or records from his time. Most of what we know about him comes from accounts of his life written long after his time by faithful followers. Like the Buddha, he is said to have been born as a prince in North India but to have renounced his kingdom to pursue a spiritual career through the guidance of his tutelary deity Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom. Śāntideva is said to have reached a high level of erudition and spiritual enlightenment through Mañjuśrī’s blessings, although, outwardly, he appeared as a lazy monk, indulging in eating, sleeping, and relieving himself, thus earning him the nickname Busuku.

As the story goes, it was to mock his indolence and to shame him that his peers persuaded Śāntideva to give a public sermon. Śāntideva agreed and is said to have miraculously climbed on the unreasonably high throne they purposely set up to mock him. Śāntideva then asked the congregation whether they wanted an exposition of a text that already existed or something new. They asked for a new teaching, resulting in Śāntideva's delivery of the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'', or ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva is said to have levitated into the sky as he recited the verse "When existence and nonexistence do not remain before the mind, as there is no other aspect, the mind comes to rest without any grasping."<ref>གང་ཚེ་དངོས་དང་དངོས་མེད་དག ། བློ་ཡི་མདུན་ན་མི་གནས་པ། །དེ་ཚེ་རྣམ་པ་གཞན་མེད་པས། །དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི། ། Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 32a.4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> He rose higher and higher until he disappeared, his voice still being heard. The disappearance into sky could be understood as an allegory for the highest experience of transcendence and emptiness of all conceptual thoughts in Śāntideva’s philosophical system. However, an old manuscript recently discovered in Drepung Monastery states that Śāntideva’s reputation soared after his recitation, resulting in much veneration and offering. And Śāntideva is said to have left Nālandā to avoid the distraction entailed by such attention.<ref>Anonymous, ''Spyod 'jug gi bsdus don dang slob dpon zhi ba lha'i lo rgyus'', in Bka' gdams gsung 'bum phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, Par gzhi dang po (Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), 6:9–14, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD153536_DD71AE.</ref> Thus, Śāntideva's miraculous disappearance into the sky likely represents a later mythological embellishment of the actual circumstances surrounding his departure.

Whatever the case may be of its origins, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' has arguably become the most influential Buddhist work in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition on bodhicitta. In this work, Śāntideva lays out the practice of bodhicitta in ten chapters, making bold claims such as:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Those who wish to crush the many sorrows of existence,
Who wish to quell the pain of living beings,
Who wish to have experience of a myriad joys
Should never turn away from bodhichitta. (1.8)<ref>སྲིད་པའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་གཞོམ་འདོད་ཅིང་། །སེམས་ཅན་མི་བདེ་བསལ་བར་འདོད་པ་དང་། །བདེ་མང་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་སྤྱོད་པར་འདོད་པས་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྟག་ཏུ་གཏང་མི་བྱ། ། This translation belongs to the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 32. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 2a.4–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Since its propagation in the eighth century, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', combining highly inspirational exhortations and incisive philosophical arguments in an evocative poetic language, appears to have become the ''locus classicus'' for bodhicitta study and practice, used and cited by many writers after its appearance. It was Śāntideva who also explicitly presented the meditation on equality between self and others and exchange between self and others as a way to cultivate bodhicitta, as illustrated by the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Do not be downcast, but marshal all your powers;
Make an effort; be the master of yourself!
Practice the equality of self and other;
Practice the exchange of self and other. (7.16)<ref>སྒྱིད་ལུག་མེད་པར་དཔུང་ཚོགས་དང་། །ལྷུར་བླང་བདག་ཉིད་དབང་བྱ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་མཉམ་པ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་བརྗེ་བར་བགྱི། ། This translation is by the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 99. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 20b.5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Traditional Tibetan scholars claimed that over a hundred Indian commentaries were written on Śāntideva’s famous work, but there are only twelve Indian commentaries on it available today. They include works by Prajñākaramati, Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Kalyāṇadeva, Vairocanarakṣita, Vinītadeva, Vibhūticandra, Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, and Atiśa.

While ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' is an original work by Śantideva written in poetic verse, his other major work, ''The Compendium of Training'', is an anthology of citations of passages from sūtras interspersed with his own words. The two works most likely developed simultaneously in an iterative process, the latter being a compilation of sources for the former in verse. ''The Compendium of Training'' was condensed into a shorter verse summary, the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'', the gist of which is presented by the following verses.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions.
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them.<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྡོམ་པ་ནི། །རྒྱས་པར་ཐེག་པ་ཆེ་ལས་འབྱུང་། །གང་གིས་ལྟུང་བར་མི་འགྱུར་བའི། །གནད་ཀྱི་གནས་རྣམས་འདིར་རིག་བྱ། །བདག་གི་ལུས་དང་ལོངས་སྤྱོད་དང་། །དགེ་བ་དུས་གསུམ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས། །སེམས་ཅན་ཀུན་ལ་བཏང་བ་དང་། །དེ་བསྲུང་དག་པ་སྤེལ་བའོ། These are verses 3 and 4 of the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā''. For the Tibetan text, see ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 1b.3–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
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Despite being an important source for bodhisattva practice, there are only two commentarial works on ''The Compendium of Training''. One is an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and the other is a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa.

The study and practice of bodhicitta within the Profound View tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism reached unprecedented heights following the eighth century, largely through the contributions of Śāntideva. In addition to the masters who commented on Śāntideva’s works mentioned above, there were other masters such as Mañjuśrīmitra, Jñānagarbha, Jetāri, Puṇyaśrī, Dhanaśrī, Vimalamitra, Śāntarakṣita, and Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla, who took up the scholarship and practice on bodhicitta. Among them, Mañjuśrīmitra and Jñānagarbha focused on the exposition of ultimate bodhicitta, which discerns the ultimate reality of emptiness, while Jetāri wrote a manual for taking the bodhisattva vow and a practice manual for beginners. In his treatise entitled ''Presenting Twelve Points on the Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa''), Mañjuśrīmitra argues that bodhicitta is the mother of all buddhas, the basis of all disciplines, the foundation of all merit, the source of all enlightened qualities, the basis of liberation, and the supreme path leading to enlightenment.<ref>See ''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2578, vol. 65, rgyud, ngu, fols. 44b4–59a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2578.</ref> However, the most prolific Indian author on bodhicitta belonging to the Middle Way school in the first millennium after Śāntideva was Kamalaśīla. He wrote his trilogy on ''The Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama'') in which he presented the gradual process of the bodhisattva path. He and his teacher Śāntarakṣita, both of whom visited Tibet in the second half of the eighth century, and Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, who traveled to Tibet in the middle of the eleventh century, were the leading doyens who transmitted the teachings on bodhicitta to Tibet.

As for the Vast Conduct tradition, which is supposed to have come down from Maitreya and the pioneer advocate Asaṅga, it continued through Vasubandhu, the younger brother of Asaṅga, who initially followed a non-Mahāyāna school and was critical of Asaṅga's teachings, but later embraced the Mahāyāna school of Mind Only. Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Asaṅga's ''The Compendium of Mahāyāna'' (''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''), and ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Aspiration to Good Actions'' (''Āryabhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja''). Additionally, a work entitled ''Treatise on the Generation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādaśāstra'') is attributed to him. Other commentators and masters who continued the teachings on bodhicitta in this line include Vasubandhu's students Sthiramati, Dignāga, and Guṇaprabha, who wrote various commentaries. They were followed by Jinaputra, Jñānaśrī, Niḥsvabhāvatā, Parahitabhadra, and Sāgaramegha, whose works are included in the Tibetan Tengyur canon. A prominent master of this line was the householder Candragomin,<ref>While there is no complete scholarly consensus, the majority of modern scholarship seems to place Candragomin in either the fifth–sixth centuries CE (the earlier estimate) or more commonly in the seventh century CE (approximately 600–650 CE, with the latter being the more widely accepted timeframe among contemporary scholars.</ref> who authored a treatise called ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'')<ref>See ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4081, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 166b1–167a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4081.</ref> and is said to have challenged Candrakīrti in debate. Śāntarakṣita and Bodhibhadra wrote commentaries on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses''.<ref>See ''Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti'' (''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4082, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 167a6–184b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4082, and ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśakapañjikā'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa'i dka' 'grel''), in Derge Tengyur D4083, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 184b3–217b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4083.</ref> The teachings and instructions in this tradition were passed down to Atiśa mainly by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa in the tenth century.

While the teachings on bodhicitta spread through these two Mahāyāna lineages, Mahāyāna Buddhism also saw the rise of yet another mode of practice and transmission. This was the emergence of what came to be called Vajrayāna or tantric Buddhism, as the system was mainly based on a body of literature called tantras. Purported to be the words of the Buddha just like the Mahāyāna sūtras, these tantras presented a path to enlightenment that included a wide range of mental, verbal, and embodied tools, as well as radical techniques. Focused on the unraveling of the innate mind of enlightenment, it adopted a syncretic approach, using a great number of non-Buddhist rituals and elements infused with Buddhist philosophies and values to bring about an expedient internal transformation. The tantric masters and texts underscored the importance of bodhicitta as an indispensable component of the Vajrayāna path. They promoted the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta as an intention to seek buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings but championed the understanding of bodhicitta as the realization of the innate nature of the mind and existence. We find also in the Vajrayāna teachings the presentation of symbolic and embodied forms of bodhicitta, which Dorji Wangchuk categorizes as psycho-physiological and semeiological bodhicitta. These esoteric Vajrayāna teachings on bodhicitta flourished in India toward the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, when it also started to spread to Tibet.

A couple centuries after their emergence in India, the teachings on bodhicitta began to spread beyond India. The teachings first traveled to Central Asia and from there to China. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', for instance, was translated by Lokakṣema in 179 BCE. This was followed by the translation of many other sūtras and commentaries by translators such as Paramārtha, Dharmarakṣa, Kumārajīva, Buddhabhadra, and Dharmakṣema in the subsequent centuries. These included the main sūtras containing teachings on bodhicitta such as ''The Flower Ornament Sūtra'' (''Avataṃsakasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'', ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'', ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'', ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'', ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'', and the other versions of the perfection of wisdom sūtras. From the accounts of Āryadeva and Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, we can also surmise that the teachings on bodhicitta spread to Ceylon and southeastern parts of Asia.

== The Transmission of Bodhicitta Teachings to Tibet ==
Tibetan historians claim that some Buddhist sūtras, such as ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' (དཔང་སྐོང་ཕྱག་བརྒྱ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ།)<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 1b1–5b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267. No Sanskrit or Chinese versions of this sūtra are known to exist.</ref> and ''The Basket's Display'' (''Karaṇḍavyūhasūtra''),<ref>''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa za ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur, D116, vol. 51, mdo sde, pa, fols. 200a3–247b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0116.</ref> reached Tibet during the reign of the twenty-eighth Yarlung king, Lha Thothori, sometime in the fifth century. Although no one in Tibet understood the texts at that time, they contained teachings on altruism and the bodhisattva path. While ''The Basket's Display'' mainly focuses on the virtues of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion, and his mantra, ''oṃ maṇi padme huṃ'', ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' contains homages to buddhas, the twelve sets of the Buddha's teachings, and bodhisattvas. It also explicitly mentions bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I, by the name . . . from now on until I reach the heart of enlightenment, shall cultivate the thought of enlightenment. I shall never let go of the thought of enlightenment. May I never be separated from the sublime virtuous friend.<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 5a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267.</ref>
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The Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on bodhicitta in particular may have spread to Tibet in some form in the seventh century during the reign of the thirty-second Yarlung monarch Songtsen Gampo. During this time Songtsen Gampo took two Buddhist brides—one from Tang China and another from the Kathmandu Valley—and also sent his minister Thönmi Sambhoṭa to India to learn Sanskrit. While we see the general introduction of the Buddhist system at this time, there are no specific records of texts related to bodhicitta having been translated or taught during this period, although later records such as the ''Maṇi Kabum'' would have us believe that teachings on compassion and bodhicitta were promulgated. Tibetan Buddhists also believe that the study and practice of bodhicitta and compassion formed a fundamental part of Songtsen Gampo’s promotion of the Buddhist religion, as he was himself considered an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion.

Historical records clearly point to the dissemination of teachings on bodhicitta in Tibet in the eighth century during the reign of Trisong Detsen, the thirty-seventh king of the Yarlung dynasty. Besides inviting to Tibet numerous Buddhist scholars and masters such as Śāntarakṣita, Padmasambhava, and Vimalamitra from India and Mohoyen from China, Tri Songdetsen initiated extensive Buddhist projects, including the construction of Samye Monastery, the institution of the first Tibetan monastic community, and above all the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan from Sanskrit and Chinese. A great number of Mahāyāna sūtras, which contained the teachings on bodhicitta, as well as many tantras and commentaries, were translated toward the end of the eighth century and beginning of the ninth century, as witnessed by the catalogs of texts created around that time. For instance, ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', which elaborates on the cultivation of bodhicitta, and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', two of the main treatises discussing bodhicitta, were translated as part of this massive translation program.

Similarly, tantric texts such as ''The Garland of Views: The King of Pith Instructions'' (''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'')<ref>*''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'' (''Man ngag gi rgyal po lta ba'i 'phreng ba''), in Pe cing Tengyur Q4726, vol. 77, rgyud 'grel, bu, 414b7–419b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG13126_4726.</ref> by Padmasambhava and ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (aka ''Bodhicittabhāvanā'') by Mañjuśrīmitra,<ref>*''Bodhicittabhāvanā'' (''Byang sems rdo la gser zhun''), also known as ''Meditation on Bodhicitta'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2591, vol. 66, rgyud 'grel, cu, 1b1–4b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2591.</ref> which explain the concept of ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric context, were also translated and taught. Mañjuśrīmitra praises bodhicitta in the latter text as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All dharmas considered to be sublime features of liberation
Are qualities of perfecting bodhicitta; they come from bodhicitta.<ref>ཇི་སྙེད་འཕགས་པའི་རྣམ་གྲོལ་ཆོས་སུ་བསྙད་པ་དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྫོགས་ལས་དེ་ཡི་ཡོན་ཏན་དེ་ལས་དེ་དག་བྱུང་། Mañjuśrīmitra, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems sde spyi'i snying po'i bstan bcos byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun'', in Damngak Dzö, vol. 1, ka, 182, fol. 9b2–3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun#tab=Tibetan_Text.</ref>
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Many texts now included in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras (Nyingma Gyubum), such as ''The All Creating King of Bodhicitta'' (''Kulayarājatantra''),<ref>''Sarvadharmamahāśantibodhicittakulayarāja'' (''Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems kun byed rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D828, vol. 97, rnying rgyud, ka, 1b1–86a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0828.</ref> formulate the concept of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and appear to have been translated by Vairocana and others during this period. History also records a debate between the gradualist Indian tradition, led by Kamalaśīla, and the simultaneist Chinese tradition, led by Mohoyen, with King Trisong Detsen as the judge. The Indian side that promoted a gradualist approach to the cultivation of bodhicitta is said to have won, and the king is said to have declared the gradualist Indian tradition to be the official system in Tibet. This period of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet came to be known as the early diffusion period, or ''ngadar'', in contrast to the later diffusion period, or ''chidar'', which took place in Tibet from the eleventh century onward.

The great Buddhist intellectual and spiritual activity in Tibet that included the translation of innumerable works and the open promotion of Buddhist teachings stopped in the middle of the ninth century. As the Yarlung dynasty collapsed due to internecine conflicts, Tibet entered a century and half of political fragmentation and intellectual decline. However, with the revival of Buddhist systems toward the end of the tenth century, Tibet witnessed a resurgence of the study and practice of bodhicitta both in the exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric traditions. Those who preserved the teachings from the early diffusion period became known as the Ancient, or Nyingma, school, while others who brought new teachings from India, Nepal, and Kashmir came to be known as the New, or Sarma, schools. The new schools included some of the leading sects such as Kadam, Kagyu, and Sakya.

Within the Nyingma school, the teachings on bodhicitta continued through the received tradition known as the ''kama'' teachings as well as the new revelations known as ''terma''. The received ''kama'' tradition, which covers the complete range of the Buddhist system, including the nine vehicles, passed on the study and practice of bodhicitta as an essential component of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna path. Most of the books in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras, considered to be apocryphal writings by later critics, began to circulate as Buddhism was revived in the eleventh century. Many of these works described bodhicitta as the state of perfect enlightenment which is latent in beings. This was further enhanced by the ''terma'' literature, which is believed to have been hidden by Padmasambhava and his coterie in the eighth and ninth centuries to be revealed and disseminated by treasure discoverers, or ''tertön''s, at the right time in the future. Composed mostly of ritual liturgies and meditation instructions, the numerous cycles of rediscovered teachings also promoted bodhicitta as a fundamental aspect of Vajrayāna practice.

The new schools equally underscored the importance of bodhicitta in both exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric study and practice. Among the most notable developments in this period was the arrival of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1055) in Tibet in 1042 CE at the invitation of Jangchub Ö, the king of Western Tibet. Historians narrate that with the chaotic and decentralized revival of Buddhism in Tibet toward the end of tenth century, the kings of Western Tibet were alarmed by the wayward conduct of some Buddhist teachers who were abusing tantric practices by making some of the secretive teachings public and taking some of the symbolic teachings literally. Thus, the kings felt the urgency to correct this by inviting an authoritative and eminent master from India, a bill which Atiśa fit perfectly, as he had become renowned as the most erudite and accomplished master in India by this time. Traditional Tibetan historians claim that Yeshe Ö, the monk ruler of Western Tibet and uncle of Jangchub Ö, was taken prisoner in a conflict with the Garlog Turks, who demanded a ransom in gold equal to his size. Yeshe Ö is said to have instructed his nephew to use the gold his nephew had raised to invite Atiśa to Tibet, rather than giving it to the Turks. This story, contested by some modern scholars, is often told to highlight the personal sacrifices made by Tibet’s kings to bring the sacred teachings of the Buddha to Tibet.<ref>See Sam van Schaik, ''Tibet: A History'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 57.</ref>

After two separate emissaries to India led by Gya Lotsāwa Tsöndru Senge (བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེངྒེ་, d.u.) and Naktso Lotsāwa Tsultrim Gyalwa (ནག་འཚོ་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱལ་བ་, 1011–1064) respectively, and after much effort to persuade the abbot of Vikramaśīla, Atiśa was allowed to travel to Tibet. Jangchub Ö received him in Western Tibet, and during his time in the royal court, Atiśa composed ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhipathapradīpa'', (''Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma''), in Derge Tengyur D3947, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 238a6–241a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3947.</ref> a treatise which laid out the spiritual path for three types of persons. This text, along with its autocommentary, highlighted the ethical aspects of the Buddhist path, including the practice of bodhicitta, and would become the exemplar of the ''lamrim'' genre of literature on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Atiśa also composed the short text ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' (''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 294b7–296a1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref> which supplemented his earlier work on the conduct of the bodhisattva. He writes in it:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Cultivate loving kindness and compassion;
Hold firm the thought of enlightenment. (v. 5)<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེ་བསྒོམ་བྱ་ཞིང༌། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ནི་བརྟན་པར་བྱ། ། ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 295a.2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref>
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Besides these two main works on bodhicitta and Mahāyāna, Atiśa also composed numerous other treatises and commentaries, many of them at the request of his Tibetan students. His teachings were spread by his many students, including Dromtön Gyalwai Jungne (འབྲོམ་སྟོན་རྒྱལ་བའི་འབྱུང་གནས་, 1004–64), his lay disciple who established Reting Monastery and launched the Kadam tradition, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab (རྔོག་ལེགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ, eleventh century), who founded Sangpu Neuthok, the famous Buddhist scholastic center in Tibet that flourished from the eleventh–fourteenth centuries. The three chief students of Dromtönpa—Potowa Rinchen Sal (པོ་ཏོ་བ་རིན་ཆེན་གསལ་, 1027–1105), Chengawa Tsultrim Bar (སྤྱན་སྔ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་འབར་, 1033/8–1103), and Puchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen (ཕུ་ཆུང་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1031–1106)—often referred to as the three brothers (''སྐུ་མཆེད་རྣམ་གསུམ་''), developed the Kadam tradition further and initiated the rise of the rich and powerful tradition of Lojong, or mind training. At the heart of the Lojong tradition is the practice of cultivating bodhicitta, particularly through the seven points of cause and effect.

While Atiśa was on his way to Tibet, he met Marpa Chökyi Lodro (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012?–1097) in Kathmandu. Marpa, who declined to be Atiśa’s translator, was at that time on his trip to India to receive teachings from Nāropa. Having received teachings from many masters such as Nāropa, Maitrīpa, and Jñānagarbha, Marpa started giving teachings to numerous disciples in southern Tibet, leading to the establishment of the Marpa Kagyu school. Teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta were disseminated through this school, and they were especially integrated into the instructions on Mahāmudrā and the Six Yogas of Nāropa. These teachings would spread widely in the subsequent centuries through the different subschools founded by the followers of Marpa.

Before Marpa embarked on his journeys to India, he studied under Drokmi Śākya Yeshe (འབྲོག་མི་ཤཱཀྱ་ཡེ་ཤེས་, 992?–1043/1072), whose fees turned out to be too high for Marpa to afford. Drokmi had traveled to Nepal and India before Marpa and studied under many Buddhist teachers. He also translated many texts, but his specialization lay in the teachings on the Path and Result, or Lamdre (ལམ་འབྲས་), which he received from Gayadhāra (ག་ཡ་དྷ་ར་, 994–1043) and Prajñendraruci (aka Vīravajra, eleventh century). In Tibet, he passed on these teachings to his main disciples, including Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya school, which has championed the teachings of the Path and Result, of which bodhicitta is an essential component.

The bodhicitta teachings propagated by Marpa and Drokmi relied heavily on extensive new tantras such as the ''Hevajra'', ''Cakrasaṃvara'', and ''Guhyasamaja''. They promoted the concept of bodhicitta both in its ethical dimension as the compassionate intention to take all sentient beings to perfect enlightenment and its ontological dimension as the state of ultimate reality. The following statement from the ''Hevajratantra'' sums up this unity:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=That which is called bodhicitta
Is the nonduality of emptiness and compassion.<ref>སྟོང་ཉིད་སྙིང་རྗེ་དབྱེར་མེད་པ། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་རབ་ཏུ་བརྗོད། ། ''Hevajratantra'' (''Kye'i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D417, vol. 80, rgyud, nga, fol. 13a.3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0417.</ref>
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The tantric teachings of the newer Marpa Kagyu and Sakya schools also discuss what Dorji Wangchuk calls the "psycho-physiological form of bodhicitta"—referring to seminal bodily fluids within tantric practices that utilize physical and psychic energies as catalysts for speedy spiritual transformation.<ref>For this discussion in Wangchuk, see chapter 6 in ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 217–23.</ref> Thus, the discussion of bodhicitta in such tantric contexts saw new heights in Tibetan religious discourse as the tantric schools gained prominence and became mainstream Buddhist traditions in Tibet.

Another important tradition through which the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread in Tibet, although the tradition did not take off to the same extent as the Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, and Sakya, is the Shangpa Kagyu, which originated in the famous scholar and meditation master Khyungpo Naljor (Khyung po rnal 'byor, 1050–1127). Khyungpo Naljor visited India and Nepal around seven times and studied under numerous teachers, his main masters being the female savants Sukhasiddhi and Nāropa’s sister Niguma, from whom he received the Six Yogas of Niguma. Similarly, the practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through the tradition of Severance, or Chö (''གཅོད་''), which is said to have begun with Machik Labdron (མ་གཅིག་ལབ་སྒྲོན་, 1055–1149), and Pacification, or Zhije (''ཞི་བྱེད་''), a tradition attributed to Padampa Sangye (ཕ་དམ་པ་སངས་རྒྱས་, eleventh century). ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' by the brahmin Āryadeva, which is a root text of the Chöd tradition, states at the outset:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Take up with respect the practice of refuge and thought of enlightenment
Follow the precepts like protecting one’s eyes.
The precepts of the bodhisattva
Should not be abandoned even at the cost of one’s life. v.5<ref>གུས་པས་སྐྱབས་འགྲོ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་བླང་། །བླངས་པའི་བསླབ་བྱ་མིག་བཞིན་བསྲུང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་བསླབ་བྱ་ནི། །སྲོག་གི་ཕྱིར་ཡང་སྤང་མི་བྱ། ། Āryadeva, ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod (Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999), 14:2-3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:%27phags_pa_shes_rab_kyi_pha_rol_tu_phyin_pa%27i_man_ngag Retrieved on 4/6/2025.</ref>
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Similarly, Padampa Sangye, in one of his famous pieces of advice given to the local people in Dingri, states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The six realms of beings are precious as fields for gathering two accumulations.
Hold a loving mind and compassion, O Dingri people.<ref>ཚོགས་གཉིས་ཡུལ་དུ་རིགས་དྲུག་སེམས་ཅན་གཅེས། །བྱམས་སེམས་ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཟུངས་ཤིག་དིང་རི་བ། ། Padampa Sangye, ''Heart Advice Called The Stack of Lotus'' (''Thugs kyi zhal gdams pad+mo brtsegs pa''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod, 13:449, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Thugs_kyi_zhal_chems_pad_mo_brtsegs_pa#tab=null.</ref>
}}
The study and practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through other transmissions such as the Kālacakra (more specifically, the six branches of yogic practice associated with Kālacakra teachings) and through the three vajra accomplishment practice of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pel (ཨོ་རྒྱན་པ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1229–1309). These transmissions, along with the teachings and meditation techniques in the Nyingma, Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, Shangpa Kagyu, and Sakya schools, as well as the Severance and Pacification traditions, make up the "eight great chariots of practice" (''སྒྲུབ་བརྒྱུད་ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེ་བརྒྱད་'') and are considered to be the main practice lineages that formed during the Buddhist resurgence of the later diffusion period. It was through these traditions that the study and practice of bodhicitta, as an essential element of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, spread across Tibet.

== The Propagation of Bodhicitta Teachings in Tibet ==

=== The Nyingma School ===
As these Buddhist schools and their associated teachings and practices flourished from the eleventh century onward—having first developed in the eighth century—Tibet also witnessed the sustained spread of bodhicitta teachings. Among the Nyingma, we see the continuous transmission of bodhicitta study and practice both through the received ''kama'' tradition and the new ''terma'' revelations. While the rediscovered ''terma'' teachings focused primarily on ritual texts and meditation instructions that emphasized bodhicitta as a key practice, the ''kama'' tradition presented bodhicitta mainly as an ontological state representing ultimate reality. This was done through discourses on the ground nature, the path of pristine awareness, and the resultant state of the Buddha, all of which were presented as the nondual, innate, luminous nature of the mind.

The three inner tantras of the Nyingma—comprising Mahāyoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga—and the outer mind cycle, inner space cycle, and secret instruction cycle of the Atiyoga or Dzogchen teachings underscored the study and practice of bodhicitta as the innate nature of one’s mind. These tantric presentations were systematized and elaborated in the writings of leading Nyingma masters such as Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, mid-eleventh–early twelfth centuries), Longchenpa Drime Ozer (ཀློང་ཆེན་རབ་འབྱམས་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyel (མངའ་རིས་པཎ་ཆེན་པདྨ་དབང་རྒྱལ་, 1487–1542), Lochen Dharmaśrī (ལོ་ཆེན་དྷརྨ་ཤྲཱི་, 1654–1718), and Jigme Lingpa (འཇིགས་མེད་གླིང་པ་, 1739–1798). Rongzom and Longchenpa, for instance, carried out detailed discussions on bodhicitta in the context of the ultimate nature of the mind in Dzogchen thought, making them the greatest thinkers and masters of the Dzogchen system. In his treatise ''Entering the Way of the Mahāyāna'' (''ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་''), Rongzom discusses bodhicitta in detail and states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The base of all phenomena is included in the mind and appearances of the mind. The nature of the mind is awakening, thus it is called the mind of awakening.<ref>ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་རྩ་བ་ནི་སེམས་དང་སེམས་སྣང་བ་ཙམ་དུ་འདུས་ལ། སེམས་ཀྱི་རང་བཞིན་ཉིད་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཡིན་པས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་བྱའོ།། See Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po’i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:477.</ref>
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He also writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Here, bodhicitta is the cultivation of thought combining wisdom and compassion.<ref>དེ་ལ་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་ནི་འདིར་ཤེས་རབ་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་བསྡུས་པའི་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའོ།། Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po'i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:500.</ref>
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Rongzompa, Longchenpa, and Lochen Dharmaśrī also commented on ''The Heart of Secret Tantra'' (''Guhyagarbhatantra''), which highlights the concept of bodhicitta as the innate nature of reality. Rongzom starts his commentary on this tantra with the claim that "bodhicitta is the essence of Three Jewels."<ref>དཀོན་མཆོག་གསུམ་གྱི་རང་བཞིན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Rongzom Chozang, ''Rgyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:33.</ref> With great emphasis on the higher tantric practices, the Nyingma masters vigorously took up the study and practice of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and as the pristine nonconceptual self-awareness of such nature.

The Nyingma masters also covered the concept of bodhicitta as the altruistic intention to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Among them, Longchenpa, who is unrivaled among the Nyingma masters in the systematization and synthesis of the Nyingma teachings in general and the Dzogchen system in particular, was perhaps the first one to discuss the theory and practice of relative bodhicitta in detail. He did this in two of his major works: ''The Treasury of Wish-fulfilling Jewels'' (''ཡིད་བཞིན་མཛོད་'')<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Yid bzhin mdzod rtsa ba'', in Mdzod bdun (a 'dzom par ma) (A 'dzom chos sgar: Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul dpal yul rdzong a 'dzom chos sgar, 1999), 1:3–88, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD8_31FD92.</ref> and ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' (''སེམས་ཉིད་ངལ་གསོ་'').<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:25–113, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_BEDB7A. For an English translation, see Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''Finding Rest in the Nature of the Mind'', vol. 1 of ''The Trilogy of Rest'', by Longchenpa (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, 2017).</ref> Like Rongzompa's description of bodhicitta as the essence of the Three Jewels, Longchenpa claims bodhicitta to be the root of all Dharma in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having become properly accustomed to the immeasurable thoughts,
One must cultivate the two types of bodhicitta, the root of all Dharma.<ref>དེ་ལྟར་ཚད་མེད་ལེགས་པར་གོམས་པ་ཡིས། །ཆོས་ཀུན་རྩ་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་གཉིས་བསྒོམ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes poʼi shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:46–47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
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He also defines bodhicitta in the following manner:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=To cultivate the [bodhicitta] thought is to desire
To reach the perfect buddha for the sake of limitless beings.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་ཚད་མེད་འགྲོ་བའི་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་སངས་རྒྱས་ཐོབ་པར་འདོད་པ་སྟེ། །སྨོན་དང་འཇུག་པའི་རང་བཞིན་གཉིས་ཡིན་ནོ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
}}
Closely following Longchenpa's elaborate discussion of bodhicitta—its definition, types, procedures for taking bodhicitta vow, and precepts—in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' and its two-volume commentary entitled ''The Great Chariot'' (''ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེན་པོ་''),<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'i 'grel pa shing rta chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), vols. 20–21, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref> Ngari Paṇchen carries out a clear and elaborate discussion of bodhicitta and bodhisattva ethics in his ''Ascertaining Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་པ་གསུམ་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ་''),<ref>See Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyal, ''Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'', in Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'i rtsa ba dang mchan 'grel rig pa 'dzin pa'i 'jug ngogs (Bylakuppe: Snga 'gyur mtho slob mdo sngags rig pa'i 'byung gnas, 1996), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23221. For an English translation of the root text, see Khenpo Gyurme Samdrub and Sangye Khandro, trans., ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'', by Ngari Paṇchen Wangyal, with commentary by Dudjom Rinpoche (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2014).</ref> on which Lochen Dharmaśrī wrote a commentary.<ref>See Lochen Dharmaśrī, ''Sdom gsum rtsa ba dang de'i 'grel pa dpag bsam snye ma sogs'' (Gser rta rdzong: Gser thang bla rung lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, n.d.), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN4872.</ref> Dharmaśrī also wrote a detailed explanation of the eighteen root downfalls or transgressions associated with the bodhisattva vow according to ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''. Similarly, Jigme Lingpa deliberated on bodhicitta in ''The Treasury of Precious Qualities'' (''ཡོན་ཏན་མཛོད་'') and in his autocommentary.<ref>See Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod dga' ba'i char'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (A 'dzom par ma: 'Brug spa gror bskyar par btab pa, 1990–1999), 1:29–166, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW7477_19AE1E.</ref>

The master most famous for championing the promotion of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, however, was Patrul Orgyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo (དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་ཨོ་རྒྱན་འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་ཀྱི་དབང་པོ་, 1808–1887). This wandering teacher reportedly taught ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' over a hundred times. His love for and expertise in this text was so remarkable that he was considered an incarnation of the Indian master Śāntideva by his contemporaries. Patrul held regular teaching retreats during which he would expound upon the text and also carry out the cultivation of bodhicitta. In this manner, he left behind a rich tradition of teaching and practicing bodhicitta in general and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in particular. He also authored the famous inspirational work entitled ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''ཀུན་བཟང་བླ་མའི་ཞལ་ལུང་།''),<ref>See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Kun bzang bla ma'i zhal lung'', part 1 and 2 (Kathmandu: Rigpe Dorje Institute, 2024), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-1-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-1/; https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-2-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-2/.</ref> which contains persuasive stories and teachings on compassion and bodhicitta. In one of his prayers, ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (''རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་མཆོག་ཏུ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའི་སྨོན་ལམ།''), he remarks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood.<ref> ཡོད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་དེས་ཆོག་ཅིང་། །མེད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་ཐབས་ཆག་པ། །སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་པའི་ས་བོན་མ་ནོར་བ། །རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་བསྐྱེད་པར་ཤོག ། For the Tibetan text, see Patrul Rinpoche, ''Rnam dag byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i smon lam'' (Lotsawa House, 2010, rev. 2012 & 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/patrul-rinpoche/aspiration-generate-bodhichitta. The translation belongs to Karma Phuntsho.</ref>
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Patrul's inspiration and influence spread beyond his own Nyingma school, especially with regard to his deep understanding and unparalleled expertise in teaching and practicing bodhicitta according to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. In the true spirit of Rime ecumenism of which he was a leading advocate, he would teach this text to different audiences, using the commentaries and giving interpretations which were most appropriate to each group. He did not compose a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as did many other Tibetan masters, but he wrote a guide for putting the text into practice and a powerful outline that captures the content and layout of the entire text with exceptional clarity and cohesion. Patrul became an immensely respected doyen for the study and practice of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', so much so that almost everyone studying and teaching the text after him embraced his lineage and traced their line of transmission to him.

Patrul's students recorded the gems of his insight into ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the commentary they put together. Among the many students who received teachings from him on bodhicitta was Orgyen Tenzin Norbu (ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་ནོར་བུ་, 1841?–1900?), who received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' from Patrul many times and taught it some two hundred times. Both he and Patrul taught Kunzang Palden (ཀུན་བཟང་དཔལ་ལྡན་, 1862–1943), who recorded their instructions in the extensive commentary entitled ''The Nectar of Mañjuśrī's Speech''.<ref>Kunzang Pelden, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i tshig 'grel 'jam dbyangs bla ma'i zhal lung bdud rtsi'i thigs pa'', in Gsung 'bum kun bzang dpal ldan, vol. 1 (Lama Ngodru and Sherab Demy, 1982), 5–746, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23946_57D951. For a bilingual version of the text with English translation by Padmakara, see this site: https://bodhicitta.tsadra.org/index.php/Books/The_Nectar_of_Manjushri%27s_Speech/Sabche.</ref> Another student, Jigme Chöphel Zangpo (འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་དཔལ་བཟང་པོ་, nineteenth century), received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' nine times from Patrul and compiled the notes from him on the first three and the tenth chapters. Minyak Kunzang Sonam (མི་ཉག་ཀུན་བཟང་བསོད་ནམས་, 1823–1905), a scholar from the Geluk tradition, also received teachings on the text nine times from Patrul and composed an extensive commentary.<ref>See Minyak Kunzang Sonam, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel bshad rgyal sras rgya mtsho'i yon tan rin po che mi zad 'jo ba'i bum bzang'', in ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang'' (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990), 1–584, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW15659.</ref>

A student of Patrul who left a significant legacy for the Nyingma tradition was Ju Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (འཇུ་མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912), probably Tibet's greatest polymath. Mipham wrote on a wide range of subjects and left behind an astounding thirty-two volumes covering almost all sciences known to him. His writings on Buddhist philosophy and practice, which contain the Nyingma understanding of Buddhist topics, form the core curriculum for scholastic study and meditation practice in the Nyingma tradition today. ''The Ketaka Gem'' (''ནོར་བུ་ཀེ་ཏ་ཀ་''), his commentary on the ninth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', which he wrote after he received teachings on it from Patrul, is a good example of his philosophical writing.<ref>See Mipham Gyatso, ''Spyod 'jug sher 'grel ke ta ka'' (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4996.</ref> While the text triggered polemical exchanges between him and his opponents, today it is widely read among followers of the Nyingma school. Mipham wrote a great deal on relative and ultimate bodhicitta in a number of his works in the context of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, including a commentary on Mañjuśrīmitra's ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta''.<ref>Mipham Gyatso, ''Byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun gyi mchan 'grel de kho na nyid gsal ba'i sgron me'', in Mi pham rgya mtsho'i gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Gangs can rig gzhung dpe rnying myur skyobs lhan tshogs, 2007), 23:63-95. See also https://online.adarshah.org/index.html?kdb=mipam&sutra=MP203&page=13-3-1ahttps://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun.</ref> The legacies of Patrul and Mipham continued through the works of their students and followers, who vigorously promoted the study and practice of bodhicitta.

The Kham region of Tibet experienced a remarkable renaissance of the Nyingma tradition during the era of the great masters of Patrul and Mipham. This renaissance, which involved many eminent figures, saw a massive burst of new scholarship and ''terma'' revelation as well as the compilation, classification, and reproduction of existing Nyingma literature. Simultaneously, there was also a revitalization of Nyingma monasticism and the development of scholastic activity through the new culture of ''shedra'' exegetical seminaries, which became vibrant centers of scholarship. The literary and institutional legacies left by this renaissance changed the trajectory of the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school.

It was ultimately the Rime movement led by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (འཇམ་དབྱངས་མཁྱེན་བརྩེའི་དབང་པོ་, 1820–1892), Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (འཇམ་མགོན་ཀོང་སྤྲུལ་བློ་གྲོས་མཐའ་ཡས་, 1813–1899), Patrul Rinpoche, and Mipham that had a significant impact on wider Buddhist study and practice. This movement came into being primarily to counteract the sectarian disputes and violence that frequently occurred between Tibetan Buddhist schools. Historical examples of violent sectarian conflicts include clashes between the Sakyapas and Drigungpas (thirteenth–fourteenth centuries), Kagyupas and Gelukpas (seventeenth century), and Nyingma and Geluk schools (eighteenth century). Moreover, the Gelukpa school with the political support of the Gaden Phodrang government had been extending their influence since the fifteenth century, leading to widespread religious prejudice and proselytization. In addition, the Rime masters had reservations about Gelukpa scholasticism, which was codified in individual college textbooks and professed through the eristic study of formulaic argumentation. Mipham particularly expressed such concern about the rigidity, verbosity, and aridity of Gelukpa scholasticism, which was founded on sophistic logic.

To stem this scholastic trend and the doctrinal controversies arising from partisan interpretations, the Rime teachers promoted the reorientation of religious study toward the Indian original texts and an eclectic approach to studying the essential teachings of all Tibetan traditions regardless of one's religious affiliation. This led to a restructuring of scholarly curricula in the ''shedra'' exegetical colleges and fostered some degree of interdenominational learning and teaching by the beginning of the twentieth century. To this effect, Khenpo Zhenga, or Zhenphen Chökyi Nangwa (གཞན་ཕན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྣང་བ་, 1871–1927), an ecumenical abbot of the ''shedra'' in Dzongsar, compiled commentaries on thirteen great classic Indian treatises, including ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yoga'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', which discuss bodhicitta and the bodhisattva path in detail. His commentaries, which are based on the writings by the Indian masters, came to be widely used as the core curriculum in the rising ''shedra'' colleges affiliated with the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya schools.

The study and practice of bodhicitta were flourishing in the scholastic and meditation centers when the People’s Liberation Army swept across Tibet. This was followed by the tragic Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). These events no doubt disrupted the scholarly pursuit of bodhicitta and gave ample opportunities for its practitioners to put it into practice in the face of overwhelming challenges and hardship. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, like in most other Tibetan Buddhist schools, recovered and reached new heights in large centers such as Namdroling Monastery in India and Larung Gar and Yachen in Tibet. These institutions attracted unprecedented numbers of students from Tibet and around the world, all of whom came to pursue Buddhist education through modernized monastic college programs that typically lasted nine years and covered topics such as bodhicitta in comprehensive detail.

=== The Kadam School ===
The Kadam school, which is considered the earliest of the ''sarma'', or new, schools, came to be known as a leading promoter of teachings on bodhicitta. Atiśa Dīpaṃkara is said to have combined in his teachings and practice both the Profound View and Vast Conduct traditions—the two main transmissions of Mahāyāna teachings in general and bodhicitta in particular. He received these transmissions from numerous masters such as Dharmarakṣita, Bodhibhadra, Dharmakīrti, Maitrīyogi, and Nāropa, and passed them down to numerous students, including his three main students—Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, who founded Reting Monastery, Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. The Kadam tradition became formalized as a tradition of seven divinity-dharmas (''བཀའ་གདམས་ལྷ་ཆོས་བདུན་ལྡན་''), which include Śākyamuni, Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, and Acala as four deities and the corpuses of Vinaya, Sūtra, and Abhidharma as the three dharmas.

The founding fathers of Kadam were succeeded by many influential masters, chief among whom were the aforementioned "three Kadam brothers"—Potowa Rinchen Sal, Chengawa Tsultrim Bar, and Phuchungwa Shönu Gyaltsen. As the Kadam tradition evolved, it also saw the development of two distinct lines of practice, especially in terms of the content and style of its teachings. Firstly, the Kadam tradition became a champion of the Lamrim, or stages of path, tradition. The Lamrim tradition revolved around Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', which covered the paths for persons of inferior, middling, and superior capacities. This was supplemented by the six treatises of Kadam (''བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་''), which they adopted as their core scriptural sources. They included Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'', Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''Compendium of Training'', Āryaśūra's ''Garland of Birth Stories'' (''Jātakamāla''),<ref>Āryaśūra, ''Jātakamāla'', in Derge Tengyur D4150, vol. 168, skyes rab, hu, 1b1-135a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4150.</ref> and ''The Collection of Aphorisms'' (''Udānavarga''),<ref>''Udānavarga'' (''Ched du brjod pa'i tshoms''), in Derge Kangyur D326, vol. 72, mdo sde, sa 209a1–253a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0326.</ref> attributed to the historical Buddha. These texts became the main treatises for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Kadam tradition.

Among the early Tibetan ''lamrim'' texts were Potowa's ''Blue Booklet'' (བེའུ་བུམ་སྔོན་མོ།), works by Gönpawa Wangchuk Gyaltsen (དགོན་པ་བ་དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1016–1082) that drew directly from Atiśa's teachings, and texts by Ngok Lekpai Sherap that were based on the teachings of Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung. Stressing the importance of bodhicitta, Potowa, as quoted by Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361), states in ''The Blue Booklet'',
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Knowing them to be just like oneself,
Treat everyone with love and compassion.
By doing so, if one upholds bodhicitta,
Therein lies each and every dharma.<ref>བདག་ཅི་འདྲ་བ་དེ་འདྲར་ཤེས་པས། །ཀུན་ལ་བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་འཇུག་བྱ། །དེས་བསྐྱེད་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དང་ལྡན་ན། །དེ་ལ་ཆོས་རྣམས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀུན་གནས། ། Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, ''Bka' gdams kyi man ngag be'u bum sngon mo'i rtsa 'grel (Lhasa, Sertsu Nangten Penying Tsholdu Chokdrikhang, 2016), 24, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG25234.</ref>
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Potowa also composed ''The Teaching in Similes'' (དཔེ་ཆོས།), which contains similes, sayings, and stories from folk culture employed to illustrate the points related to the spiritual path. Around the same time, a set of literary compositions on the spiritual path closely related to the ''lamrim'' called ''tenrim'' (བསྟན་རིམ་), or stages of the doctrine, developed. ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Doctrine'' (བསྟན་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ།) by Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne (གྲོ་ལུང་པ་བློ་གྲོས་འབྱུང་གནས་, eleventh century) is perhaps the earliest one.<ref>See Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne, ''Bstan rim chen mo'' (Delhi: Norbu Kharphigsi Publications, 2014), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG24221.</ref> These books, in contrast to works in the ''lamrim'' genre which lay out the path for the persons of three capacities, discuss the different teachings in the Buddhist system, taking an inclusive and cohesive approach in order to reconcile the diverse teachings. Some scholars understood the terms ''lamrim'' and ''tenrim'' to be synonyms, but others differentiated the two and considered ''tenrim'' to refer to public discourses and ''lamrim'' to refer to personalized private instructions.

Whatever the case, the approach of seeing all teachings as noncontradictory, understanding all scriptures as pith instructions, fathoming the intent of the Buddha easily, and absolving evil actions spontaneously are seen as the four special qualities of the Kadam tradition. With such an open and inclusive approach, the Kadam master generally embraced all Buddhist teachings. Yet, this did not entail a monotonous and homogenous system. Based on their specializations, the adherents of the Kadam school became divided into the tradition of scriptures (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་པ་) associated with Potowa and the tradition of oral and didactic pith instructions (བཀའ་གདམས་མན་ངག་པ་) associated with Chengawa, the latter further divided by some into essential instructions and oral instructions. In the cases of both the scriptural and instructional traditions, there were numerous other methods, styles, and techniques for presenting the teachings. Potowa favored approaching the teachings through mindfulness of the Buddha, Puchungwa through dependent origination, and Chengawa through the four noble truths. Within a couple generations of its diffusion, the Lamrim tradition of the Kadam school generated numerous commentaries and instructional texts while developing diverse approaches and styles for practicing the ''lamrim'' teachings.

The second most important component of Kadam study and practice was the tradition of Mind Training, or Lojong. Atiśa received various texts and techniques for mind training from his Indian teachers and passed them on to his main disciples, who in turn passed them on to their disciples. The pith instructions for mind training were mostly transmitted as secret teachings (ལྐོག་ཆོས་) in private sessions. Potowa passed down the ''lojong'' transmissions to Sharawa Yönten Drak (ཤ་ར་ཡོན་ཏན་གྲགས་, 1070–1141), whose disciple Tumtön Lodrö Drak (གཏུམ་སྟོན་བློ་གྲོས་གྲགས་, ca. 1106–1166) founded the famous Kadam center of Narthang in 1153, and to Langri Thangpa (གླང་རི་ཐང་པ་, 1054–1123), who composed ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' (''བློ་སྦྱོང་ཚིག་བརྒྱད་མ་'').<ref>See Langri Thangpa, ''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'', in Blo sbyong nyer mkho phyogs bsgrigs, ed. Ngag dbang sbyin pa and Cha ris skal bzang thogs med (Kan su: Kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 172–73, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW25275_54767F.</ref> Sharawa passed the instructions on to Chekawa Yeshe Dorje (འཆད་ཁ་བ་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1101–1175), who established Cheka Monastery and composed the famous ''Seven-Point Mind Training'' (''བློ་སྦྱོང་དོན་བདུམ་མ་'').<ref>See Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, ''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'i rtsa tshig sogs'', Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1NLM668.</ref> The transmission of ''lojong'' from Chekawa branched into northern and southern traditions and spread widely, with the cultivation of ultimate and relative bodhicitta at its core.

As the Kadam tradition evolved with its wealth of ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' teachings, its main historical records, teachings, and practices were compiled in ''The Book of Kadam'' (''བཀའ་གདམས་གླེགས་བམ་བཏུས་པའི་ཆོས་སྐོར་'').<ref>See Thupten Jinpa, ed., ''Bka' gdams glegs bam las btus pa'i chos skor'' (Delhi: Bod gyi gtsug lag zhib dpyod khang, 2005), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12514. For an English translation, see Thubten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008).</ref> With ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' by Atiśa at its core, the book contains sections called "Father Teachings," which are composed of questions and answers between Atiśa and Dromtönpa, and "Son Teachings," made up of questions and answers between Atiśa and Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. In the chapter discussing how all problems lie in the sole point of self-attachment—an important topic of meditation in the Lojong tradition—Atiśa asks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text="In that case, do you understand the mind's true mode of being?"

"Yes, I do," replied Drom.

Atiśa: "So what need is there of desires for this mind; cultivate contentment. Even though you perceive many sentient beings, all of them are your fathers and mothers who have taken joy in your overcoming of misfortune and [attainment] of good fortune. They have cleaned your runny nose with their mouths, your excrement with their hands, have nurtured you with kingdoms and with gifts, and some, despite having been abandoned [by us], have cared for us again. It is due to the kindness of the teacher that positive qualities are revealed. In general, it is the teacher who has done you the great kindness of granting you your ultimate aim. And it is your parents who are the source of great kindness granting you joy and happiness in this life. You should therefore recognize their kindness and repay their kindness.

"For this, serve the teacher through respectful veneration and meditative practice, and toward your parents, in order to repay their kindness, cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable joy when they are happy, and immeasurable equanimity that is free of discriminating thoughts of near and distant. For the benefit of all—all your mothers—strive as much as possible to attain buddhahood and, discarding lingering doubts, cherish your persistence in meditative practice. Abandoning all obstacles such as sloth, mental dullness, and laziness, endeavor with joyful perseverance.

"Drom, although one speaks of "recognizing the kindness of others and repaying it," it all seems to pertain to the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, such as loving-kindness and compassion; the stabilization of the awakening mind; its enhancement from high to ever higher levels; and the definite steering of one's parents with the paddles of [the two awakening minds,] aspirational and engaging."<ref>Thunten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 125–26.</ref>
}}
These passages and the many texts and teachings in the Lamrim and Lojong traditions of the Kadam school sufficiently demonstrate how bodhicitta forms the bedrock of the Kadam tradition and how the school came to champion its propagation. We also see the gradual development of the structures and procedures for practice, such as the seven instructions of cause and effect.

In addition to its strong practical orientation, the theoretical and philosophical study of bodhicitta also flourished within the Kadam school. This took place mainly through the scholastic education at Sangpu Neutok, the monastic college which was founded by Ngok Lekpai Sherab in 1072 and which rose to be a prominent Kadam center of learning some fifty years after its founding. At its peak, Sangpu Neutok was the most well-known center for scholastic education in Tibet, with alumni that included the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (དུས་གསུམ་མཁྱེན་པ་, 1110–1193), Longchenpa Drime Özer (ཀློང་ཆེན་པ་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (ཙོང་ཁ་པ་བློ་བཟང་གྲགས་པ་, 1357–1419), and Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (རོང་སྟོན་ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་རིག་, 1367–1449), who went to Sangpu for debate sessions. Some forty-five great masters such as Ngok Loden Sherab (རྔོག་བློ་ལྡན་ཤེས་རབ་, 1059–1109), Chapa Chökyi Senge (ཕྱ་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སེང་གེ་, 1109–1169), Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo (ཕག་མོ་གྲུ་པ་རྡོ་རྗེ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1110–1170), Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), Patsab Nyima Drakpa (པ་ཚབ་ཉི་མ་གྲགས་པ་, twelfth century) worked at Sangpu, making it a wonderful enclave of scholarship. Bodhicitta was rigorously studied through lectures, debates, and writing on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', and many other texts.

Another Kadam center where both the theoretical study and practical application of the teachings flourished and where a combination of both the tradition of scriptures and oral instructions thrived was Narthang, located in the Tsang region. Narthang produced great scholars such as Chim Namkha Drak (མཆིམས་ནམ་མཁའ་གྲགས་, 1210–1285), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་, 1219–1299), and Chomden Rikpai Raldri (བཅོམ་ལྡན་རིག་པའི་རལ་གྲི་, 1297–1305), who wrote commentaries on texts discussing bodhicitta and also composed practice manuals for its cultivation. Scholarship on bodhicitta flourished in the Kadam tradition. Some two dozen works, including full commentaries and short treatises, were written on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' alone by authors including Gyamar Jangchub Drak (རྒྱ་དམར་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་གྲགས་, eleventh–twelfth century), Chapa Chökyi Senge, Tsangnakpa Tsöndru Senge (གཙང་ནག་པ་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེང་གེ་, twelfth century), Drotön Dutsi Drak (གྲོ་སྟོན་བདུད་རྩི་གྲགས་, 1153–1232), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, Lodöe Tsungme (བློ་གྲོས་མཚུངས་མེད་, thirteenth century), and Kyitön Drakpa Gyaltsen (སྐྱི་སྟོན་གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, thirteenth century).

An outstanding Kadam luminary of his time was Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཐོགས་མེད་བཟང་པོ་, 1295–1369) of Ngulchu, particularly in terms of teaching and practicing bodhicitta. After studying in Sakya, Bodong, and Shalu Monasteries, Tokme Zangpo composed commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>See, for example, Gyalse Tokme Zangpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel pa legs bshad rgya mtsho'' (Them bu: Kun bzang stobs rgyas, 1975), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12289.</ref> and ''The Seven-Point Mind Training'',<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Commentary on the Seven Points of Mind Training'', by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (Lotsawa House, 2018), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/gyalse-thogme-zangpo/commentary-on-seven-points-mind-training.</ref> but his most significant contribution was ''The Thirty-Seven Bodhisattva Practices'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma''),<ref>See Tokme Zangpo, ''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'' (Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1988), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN15679.</ref> which today ranks among the most popular and influential texts for the study and practice of the path of the bodhisattva. Through these centers and masters, the study and practice of bodhicitta spread widely among the followers of the Kadam school.

The old Kadam tradition gradually declined in the fourteenth century but found a new manifestation in the new Gandenpa school of Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa. An influential monk, literary star, and master meditator, Tsongkhapa gave fresh life to the Kadam school but also departed from some of its old philosophical positions. He composed ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment'' (''ལམ་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ་''),<ref>Tsongkhapa, ''Lam rim chen mo'', in Gsung 'bum tsong kha pa (Zhol) (New Delhi: Mongolian Lama Guru Deva, 1978–1979), 13:39–1084, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW635_093BB6.</ref> a medium-length work on the ''lamrim'' (''ལམ་རིམ་འབྲིང་པོ་''), and a condensed work on the ''lamrim'' called ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'' (''ལམ་གཙོ་རྣམ་གསུམ་'').<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'', by Je Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (Lotsawa House, 2006, rev. 2012), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/bo/tibetan-masters/tsongkhapa/three-principal-aspects.</ref> He also composed works on ''lojong'', presenting a synthesized and structured theory as well as procedures for practice. By then, the old Kadam school declined as its teachings were incorporated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly the new Geluk school, which emerged as a reformed version of the Kadam school to carry on its legacies.

Toward the end of Tsongkhapa's life, the main seat of Ganden Monastery was established, followed soon by the founding of Sera and Drepung. These large monastic centers housed thousands of monks and carried out the rigorous study of bodhicitta in the context of their specific college curriculum (''ཡིག་ཆ་''). The authors of the ''yigcha'' such as Sonam Drakpa (བསོད་ནམས་གྲགས་པ་, 1478–1554), Jamyang Zhepa (འཇམ་དབྱངས་བཞད་པ་, 1648–1721), and Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (རྗེ་བཙུན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1469–1544) presented the definition, divisions, and benefits of bodhicitta during their deliberations on various Buddhist philosophical and moral topics. In fact, bodhicitta is the first of the seventy topics they studied as part of their long course on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. However, these monasteries did not include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' or ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' in their curriculum and study of these texts was carried out separately outside of the monastic curriculum.

Besides the authors of the curriculum, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the new Geluk school was also promoted by the successive Dalai Lamas, Paṇchen Lamas, and Ganden Tripas, as well as by the abbots and other geshes of the three main seats (Ganden, Sera, and Drepung) and the two tantric colleges. The First Dalai Lama, Gedun Drup (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་, 1391–1474), and the First Paṇchen Lama, Lobzang Chökyi Gyaltsen (བློ་བཟང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1570–1662), both wrote on ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' practices. Other inspirational Geluk figures such as Changkya Rolpai Dorje (ལྕང་སྐྱ་རོལ་པའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1717–1786) and Könchok Tenpai Drönme (དཀོན་མཆོག་བསྟན་པའི་སྒྲོན་མེ་, 1762–1823) wrote specific works on the cultivation of bodhicitta. Könchok Tenpai Drönme, for example, presents instructions on how to first cultivate relative bodhicitta, then ultimate bodhicitta, and finally how the two work together. In his instructions for practicing the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, he pretends to be in a debate with selfishness, which he refutes using different arguments.

The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Geluk school, like all other traditions in Tibet, went through tumultuous changes beginning in the middle of the twentieth century with the arrival of the People's Liberation Army and continuing through the Cultural Revolution. For over three decades, the study of bodhicitta in the Geluk school went through its darkest chapter, though many masters did excel in the practice of bodhicitta in the face of severe atrocities.

The bodhicitta teachings were soon revived in India through the establishment of monastic centers for education and practice by Tibetans who had fled Tibet following the upheavals of the 1960s and 70s. These efforts were crowned by the enthusiasm and commitment of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as a global paragon of wisdom and compassion. With dozens of books in multiple languages and public sermons attended by tens of thousands of people, he and his students took the teachings of bodhicitta to an unprecedented level by spreading the teachings across the globe. At the same time, the Geluk tradition also actively adopted the transmission of bodhicitta teachings that were passed down from Patrul Rinpoche. These came via two main lines: through Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen (ཁུ་ནུ་བླ་མ་བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1894?–1977) to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, and through Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823–1905), who wrote an extensive commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' based on Patrul's teachings.

=== The Kagyu School ===
The teachings on bodhicitta coming from the Kadam school were also passed down through the Marpa Kagyu school. The focus of Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012–1097) and his disciple Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040–1123) remained on the esoteric tantric teachings that Marpa brought from India, having received them from teachers such as Nāropa and Maitrīpa. However, Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (སྒམ་པོ་པ་བསོད་ནམས་རིན་ཆེན་, 1079–1153), the third founding father of the Kagyu tradition from the Dakpo region of Tibet, combined the esoteric tantric teachings he received from Milarepa with the Kadam teachings he had received before becoming Milarepa's disciple.<ref>The school later took its new name Dakpo Kagyu after him.</ref> Thus, we see an effective pairing of the relative bodhicitta teachings from the Kadam tradition with the teachings on ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric texts and ''mahāmudrā'' transmission.

This synthesis by Gampopa is best seen in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (''དམ་ཆོས་ཡིད་བཞིན་ནོར་བུ་ཐར་པ་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་རྒྱན་''), which condenses the entire path to buddhahood into six topics, which he puts in the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The buddha-nature is the cause,
Precious and supreme human body, the support,
The virtuous master is the agent,
And his instructions, the expedient technique.
The result is the body of the perfect Buddha,
Who engages in actions for the world with no thought.<ref>རྒྱུ་ནི་བདེ་གཤེགས་སྙིང་པོ་སྟེ། །རྟེན་ནི་མི་ལུས་རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག །རྐྱེན་ནི་དགེ་བའི་བཤེས་གཉེན་ཡིན། །ཐབས་ནི་དེ་ཡི་གདམས་ངག་སྟེ། །འབྲས་བུ་རྫོགས་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྐུ། །ཕྲིན་ལས་རྟོག་མེད་འགྲོ་དོན་མཛད། ། Gampopa Sonam Rinchen, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'' (Thimphu: KMT, 2005), 3.</ref>
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Gampopa discusses both relative and ultimate bodhicitta in some detail in this work, stating concisely that the objects of relative bodhicitta are the state of enlightenment and sentient beings, and that ultimate bodhicitta is the realization of emptiness endowed with compassion that is clear, unperturbed, and free from mental elaborations.<ref>Gampopa, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'', 133 and 137.</ref> He then presents the procedures to obtain the bodhisattva vow, the precepts to follow, the definition and types of bodhicitta, and a detailed treatment of the six perfections as applied bodhicitta. This work would remain a core text for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Dakpo Kagyu tradition.

The four chief disciples of Gampopa started the four Kagyu schools and spread the teachings on bodhicitta. They include the aforementioned Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, who founded the Pakdru Kagyu; Barompa Darma Wangchuk (འབའ་རོམ་པ་དར་མ་དབང་ཕྱུག་, 1127–1199/1200), who established the Barom Kagyu; the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, who established the Karma Kagyu; and Zhang Yudrakpa (ཞང་གཡུ་བྲག་པ་, 1123–1193), who established the Tselpa Kagyu. Pakmodrupa is said to have viewed himself as a servant of all sentient beings and to have lived a life committed to strict morality and service to others. He wrote several works on bodhicitta, including a commentary on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows''<ref>Phakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, ''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa bzhugs pa'i dbu phyogs'', in Gsung 'bum phag mo gru pa rdo rje rgyal po (bris ma), (ga), 27–48, Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG15061_A5D6A7.</ref> and a treatise entitled ''Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva'', not to be confused with Śāntideva's work, although they have the same title in Tibetan. In another text called ''The Great Pearl Garland'' (''སེམས་བསྐྱེད་མུ་ཏིག་ཕྲེང་ཆེན་''), he wrote in praise of bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Other intentions and precepts are like well-cooked food but thoughts and precepts concerning bodhicitta are like the celestial cake with a hundred tastes. The mass of other merits is like a ruler from a castle, while bodhicitta is like the universal monarch ruling over all gods and men. The merit accrued from other virtues is like the light of a firefly, while the merit of bodhicitta is like the blazing disc of the sun.<ref>Pakmodrupa, ''Sems bskyed mu tig phreng chen'', in Gsung 'bum rdo rje rgyal po (N.p: N.p, 1998), 1:571–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23860_764630.</ref>
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Pakmodrupa's eight chief disciples took the teachings further by founding eight subschools of the Pakdru Kagyu. Among them are figures such as Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (འཇིག་རྟེན་མགོན་པོ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1143–1217), who founded the Drikung Kagyu, Lingrepa Pema Dorje (གླིང་རས་པ་པདྨ་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1128–1188), whose disciple Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (གཙང་པ་རྒྱ་རས་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1161–1211) founded the Drukpa Kagyu, and Taklungtangpa Tashi Pal (སྟག་ལུང་ཐང་པ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་དཔལ་, 1142–1209/1210). Jikten Gönpo established Drikung Thil, had a large following, and also wrote many texts on the cultivation of bodhicitta. ''The Experiential Hymns on the Fivefold Mahāmudrā'' (''ཕྱག་རྒྱ་ཆེན་པོ་ལྔ་ལྡན་གྱི་རྟོགས་པའི་མགུར་'') is perhaps the most well-known work. Only five verses, it starts with the following:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If the steed of love and compassion
Does not run for the benefit of others,
It will not be rewarded in the assembly of gods and humans.
Attend, therefore, to the preliminaries.<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེའི་རྟ་ཕོ་ལ། །གཞན་ཕན་གི་དཀྱུས་ཐོག་མ་བཅད་ན། །ཁྲོམ་ལྷ་མིའི་འོར་ཆེ་མི་འབྱུང་བས། །སེམས་སྔོན་འགྲོ་འདི་ལ་ནན་ཏན་མཛོད།།. See Karma Phuntsho, trans., ''Jikten Sumgön's Fivefold Path of Mahāmudrā'' (''Phyag rgya chen po lnga ldan rtogs pa'i mgur''), Buddha-Nature: A Tsadra Foundation Project, recent essays, posted October 2021, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Recent_Essays/Post-50.</ref>
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Like Jikten Gönpo, Tsangpa Gyare, the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu, became a highly influential Kagyu master and spread the teachings on bodhicitta widely. He is said to have sent many waves of students across the Himalayas so that the Drukpa Kagyu teachings could spread across vast distances—as far as a vulture can fly in eighteen days. It has been said in a highly exaggerated claim that half of humanity are followers of the Drukpa Kagyu tradition, half of them paupers, and half of the paupers accomplished saints. The upper Drukpas, went another panegyrical claim, are as many as stars in the sky, the lower Drukpas are as many as the particles of dust on the earth, and the middle Drukpa tradition has 2500 leading hierarchs who are entitled to parasols over their head. No doubt, the teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread widely through the works of Tsangpa Gyare and his followers. Tsangpa Gyare remarked in one of his pieces of advice:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If bodhicitta is not cultivated, all meritorious activities, like an offering of flour to demons will throw one to the currents of worldly concerns.<ref>བྱང་སེམས་རྒྱུད་ལ་མ་སྐྱེས་ན། །བསོད་ནམས་བདུད་ཀྱི་ཕྱེ་གཏོར་འདིས། །ཆོས་བརྒྱད་ཆུ་ལ་བསྐུར་ཉེན་གདའ། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''<i>'</i>Gro mgon rin po che's gsung mgur gyi rim pa'', in 'Gro ba’i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23782_A9B6DF.</ref>
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"If one had compassion like a shepherd," he said, "one would care for both the good and bad."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེ་ལུག་རྫི་འདྲ་ན་བཟང་ངན་མེད་པར་བསྐྱང་སྟེ་མཆི། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''Tsogs chos mno ‘khor ma che ba'', in 'Gro ba'i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 9b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN2232_A2AF3F.</ref>

A leading disciple of Gampopa was Dusum Khyenpa, who established a lineage that became highly influential in Tibetan religion and politics. He was later recognized as the First Karmapa. Dusum Khyenpa founded Tsurphu Monastery in Tibet and had a great following. He taught that Dharma is about benefiting sentient beings and emphasized the importance of loving-kindness and compassion as part of the Mahāyāna path. But it was his successors who excelled in the scholarship on bodhicitta theory and practice. The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (ཀརྨ་པཀྵི་, 1204–1283), mentioned bodhicitta in his writings, but Rangjung Dorje (རང་བྱུང་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1284–1339 ), the Third Karmapa, wrote many important works on ultimate bodhicitta. These included books on the perfection of wisdom, which covered the empty aspect of ultimate bodhicitta, and books on buddha-nature, which covered the luminous aspect of ultimate bodhicitta.

Among the seventeen Karmapas who have become heads of the Kamtsang Kagyu school so far, the Eighth Karmapa, Mikyö Dorje, wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' in which he discusses bodhicitta. He also composed many other short manuals and instructions for bodhicitta practice such as ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang sems kyi khrid'', In Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa: 2004), 19:383–98, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_5E5C5A.</ref> ''Cultivation of Bodhicitta in One Night'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang chub kyi sems sgom tshul zhag gcig ma'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:331–34, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_DE0419.</ref> and ''Instructions for Mind Training''.<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Blo sbyong gi khrid'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:281–96, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_C222BF.</ref> In ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'', he presents guidance on how to generate bodhicitta using a dialogue between Maitreya and Maitrīyogi as the main text. In it, he also gives instructions on how to combine the cultivation of bodhicitta with breathing. Mikyö Dorje also wrote the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka, Cittamātra, and Vajrayāna traditions.

Another major author on bodhicitta belonging to the Kamtshang Kagyu subschool was Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (དཔའ་བོ་གཙུག་ལག་ཕྲེང་བ་, 1504–1564), a historian and commentator on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Besides his commentary on this classical text on bodhicitta, he also authored liturgies for taking the bodhisattva vows for both relative and ultimate bodhicitta and instructions on how to turn both positive and negative life experiences into opportunities for mind training.

The sixteenth century saw another major Kagyu figure belonging to the Drukpa Kagyu subschool. Pema Karpo (པདྨ་དཀར་པོ་, 1527–1592), the Fourth Drukchen of the Drukpa Kagyu school, wrote commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>Pema Karpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'bru 'grel dbu ma'i lam gyi sgron ma'' (Nepal: Shree Gautam Buddha Vihara, 2017), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/a-lamp-for-the-middle-way/.</ref> and ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. He also composed a treatise on the three vows, the second chapter of which deals with the bodhisattva vow and precepts. He also wrote texts related to the lamrim stages of the path to enlightenment and many works on ''mahāmudrā'', which deal with the ultimate form of bodhicitta.

In the nineteenth century, a major Kagyu figure to champion all traditions of Tibetan Buddhist teachings, including the study and practice of bodhicitta, was Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (1813–1899). As a leading promoter of the Rime ecumenical movement in eastern Tibet alongside his teacher and colleague Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892), Kongtrul produced the five great treasuries, including The Treasury of Kagyu Tantras (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད་སྔགས་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Revealed Treasures (རིན་ཆེན་གཏེར་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Instructions (གདམས་ངག་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Knowledge (ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་ཁྱབ་མཛོད་), and The Treasury of Extensive Teachings (རྒྱ་ཆེན་བཀའ་མཛོད་). While the first three are mainly compilations of existing teachings, Kongtrul added many supplements to enrich the collections. In the Treasury of Instructions, he put together the rare and important meditation instructions of all major Tibetan Buddhist transmissions and also composed many instructions and liturgies himself. A good example of this is his composition of the liturgy to take the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka tradition as received via Śāntideva. The two last collections mainly consist of his own encyclopedic writings and include his commentary on Chekawa Yeshe Dorje's ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' and his ''Aspirational Prayer for Mind Training''.

The last great Kagyupa/Nyingmapa promoter of bodhicitta in India in the twentieth century was Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, although he was also more aligned to the Rime ecumenical tradition than a specific sect. Born in North India with deep knowledge of its languages and cultures, and trained in Tibet before Buddhism's decline there, Khunu Rinpoche was uniquely positioned to preserve and transmit bodhicitta teachings during Tibet's takeover by the People's Liberation Army and the subsequent refugee exodus. At such a critical moment, Khunu Rinpoche passed on the profound teachings on bodhicitta to his students, the most eminent among them being the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as the unparalleled paragon of bodhicitta study and practice in modern times. Khunu Rinpoche also composed his very deep and poetic treatise on bodhicitta entitled ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta''.<ref>See Khunu Lama, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, n.d), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ369499.</ref>

Around the same time, another prominent Kagyu master to promote bodhicitta through his writings was Gedun Rinchen (དགེ་འདུན་རིན་ཆེན་, 1926–1997), the sixty-ninth Je Khenpo, or Chief Abbot, of Bhutan. Gedun Rinchen wrote commentaries on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', notes on ''The Way of the Bodisattva'', and several short works on the cultivation of both relative and ultimate bodhicitta. He is perhaps the first Bhutanese author to also write extensively on topics related to bodhicitta, although several other Bhutanese would do so in the twenty-first century. Today, traditional scholarship on bodhicitta among the Kagyu school thrives with an unprecedented number of scholars and masters writing and teaching both in the Himalayan Buddhist areas and in the diaspora.

=== The Sakya School ===
The Sakya school was founded by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102) with the establishment of Sakya center in the Tsang region of Tibet in 1073. In subsequent generations, the school evolved to become renowned for their scholarship and their dedicated practice of the Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on the Path and Result in particular. This was also true with regard to their study and practice of bodhicitta. According to the tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (ས་ཆེན་ཀུན་དགའ་སྙིང་པོ་, 1092–1158), the son of Könchok Gyalpo and the first of the five eminent ancestors of Sakya, is said to have had a vision of Mañjuśrī in which he received the teachings known as ''Parting from the Four Attachments'' (''ཞེན་པ་བཞི་བྲལ་'').<ref>See Ngor pa dpon slob blo gter dbang po, ed., ''Zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Rgyud sde kun btus (glog klad par ma) (Kathmandu: Sachen International, Guru Lama, 2004), 23:727–30, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW27883_DDE525.</ref> The teaching went as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If you are attached to this life, you are not a true spiritual practitioner;
If you are attached to saṃsāra, you have no renunciation;
If you are attached to your own self-interest, you have no bodhicitta;
If there is grasping, you do not have the View.<ref>Rigpa Translations, trans., ''Instruction on Parting from the Four Attachments'', by Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (Lotsawa House, 2011), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/jetsun-drakpa-gyaltsen/parting-four-attachments.</ref>
}}
The third point on parting from the attachment to self-interest underscored the importance of the practice of bodhicitta and compassion in the Sakya spiritual practice. A generation after him, his son Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), who got trained at Sangpu Neutok under the illustrious scholar Chapa Chökyi Senge, carried on the scholarly tradition of Sakya and composed a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel pa'', in ''<i>'</i>Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung'', ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po (Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 68:20–209, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_A992FA.</ref> The younger son, Drakpa Gyaltsen (གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1147–1216), carried on the tradition and composed a summary of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum, reprinted from a set of Derge Parkhang woodblocks (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992-1993), 9:553–91, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_21D2B6.</ref> instructions on ''Parting from the Four Attachments'',<ref>See ''Rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan gyis mdzad pa'i zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Gdams ngag mdzod (Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1979–1981), 6:310–14, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20877_835B23.</ref> a manual for taking the refuge and bodhisattva vows,<ref>See ''Chos spyod rin chen phreng ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:511–46, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_BAE593.</ref> and an exegesis on ''The Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow''.<ref>See Sachen Kunga Nyingpo and Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa gsal bar ston pa shlo ka nyi shu pa'i rnam par bshad pa'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:547–604, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_4967BB.</ref>

The greatest scholar among the five sublime ancestors of Sakya, however, was Ngawang Kunga Gyaltsen, who is popularly known as Sakya Paṇḍita or Sakya Paṇchen (ས་སྐྱ་པཎྜི་ཏ་, 1182–1251). A scholar of exceptional caliber, Sakya Paṇḍita composed many original works, some of which discuss bodhicitta. These include ''Distinguishing the Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་གསུམ་རབ་དབྱེ་''),<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:1–96, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' (''ཐུབ་པའི་དགོངས་པ་རབ་ཏུ་གསལ་བ་''),<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:9–206, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> a liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow, and a collection of scriptural citations to substantiate the points related to bodhicitta.<ref>See ''Dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi cho ga'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:467–503, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_1F51EB and ''Byang chub kyi mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga'i lung sbyor'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:503–24, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_A6BF74.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita bestowed the bodhisattva vow according to the Middle Way tradition and followed this with teachings on ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' so that one's bodhicitta would not decrease but would increase. Yet, it was generally his critical and polemical discourses on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta that often attracted the greatest attention from scholars and readers. For instance, he argued that not all bodhisattva aspiration prayers would come true, for if they did, bodhisattvas would be constantly inflicted by the pain and suffering that they prayed would fall on them. However, he accepted the essential role that bodhicitta played in Buddhist soteriology. "If one mishandles the crux of bodhicitta, other dharma cannot make one fully enlightened,"<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་གནད་འཆུགས་ན། །ཆོས་གཞན་གྱིས་ནི་འཚང་མི་རྒྱ། ། ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:33, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> he argued. Furthermore, he writes,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If one has bodhicitta and skill in means,
Even if one indulges in the five sensory objects,
Such an act becomes an act of great virtue for a bodhisattva.
It is considered as sin by the hearers.<ref>འདོད་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་ལྔར་སྤྱོད་ཀྱང་། །ཐབས་མཁས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ལྡན་ན། །རྒྱལ་སྲས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ཆེན་ཡིན། །ཉན་ཐོས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་སྡིག་པར་གསུངས། ། See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref>
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In his ''Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' and the liturgy on the bodhisattva vow, he presents a brief historical account of the two main Mahāyāna traditions, a clear account of bodhicitta and its types, the ritual for receiving the bodhisattva vow, and the precepts that follow.<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita was succeeded by his nephew Chögyal Pakpa (ཆོས་རྒྱལ་འཕགས་པ་, 1235–1280), who followed his uncle to China and later became the court priest and tutor of Kubilai Khan. Chögyal Pakpa is said to have given the bodhicitta vow to large gatherings of 70,000 people during the Chumik convention in 1270 and to have also administered it to his Mongol disciples in the Yuan court.

The Sakya school, put in place by the five great masters, continued to grow through the works of many great figures on the Tibetan intellectual scene and the many monasteries and centers they founded. In the generation after Chögyal Pakpa, we see the rise of Butön Rinchen Drub (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་, 1290–1364), a Sakya scholar who became the head of Shalu Monastery and was also responsible for the compilation of the first Kangyur and Tengyur canons, today referred to as the Old Narthang Kangyur and Tengyur. Butön left behind a prodigious oeuvre that includes a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa byang chub kyi sems gsal bar byed pa zla ba'i 'od zer'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19:193–614, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_11394D.</ref> a summary of it,<ref>See ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19: 147–92, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_B2DED5.</ref> and a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''.<ref>''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rgya cher bshad pa lung gi snye ma'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy Of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 18:13–740, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_850C4C</ref> He also wrote one of the earliest and elaborate treatises on buddha-nature<ref>See, for example, ''Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 20:1–78, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_9E60DB.</ref> and numerous texts on Vajrayāna, covering ultimate bodhicitta.

An influential contemporary of Butön with a strong connection to the Sakya school was Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361). Initially associated with the Sakya school, Dölpopa undertook Kālacakra practice at Jomonang center, which eventually led him to his exposition of the philosophy of ''zhentong'' (''གཞན་སྟོང་''), or other emptiness. He wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rnam bshad mdo'i don bde blag tu rtogs pa'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon, 1990s?), 5:245–620, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_F64381.</ref> and original works such as ''The Mountain Dharma: Ocean of Definitive Meaning''<ref>See ''Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho zhes bya ba mthar thug thun mong ma yin pa'i man ngag'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 3:191–739, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_CC2A89.</ref> and ''The Fourth Council'',<ref>See ''Bka' bsdu bzhi pa'i don bstan rtsis chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 6:167–204, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_A37792.</ref> which elaborate an understanding of ultimate bodhicitta which is starkly different from the mainstream Sakya position. Dölpopa and his writings, which were carried on by the Jonang school, left behind a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist scholarship and practice.

In the fourteenth century, the Sakya school produced two outstanding scholars who both got trained at Sangpu Neutok. The first was Yaktön Sangye Pal (གཡག་སྟོན་སངས་རྒྱས་དཔལ་, 1350–1414), one of the six scholars known as the Six Ornaments of Tibet who wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Sher phyin mngon rtogs rgyan rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20485.</ref> but did not write any independent work on bodhicitta. The second scholar, Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (1367–1449), in contrast, wrote commentaries on major Indian treatises, including ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>Rongtön Sheja Kunrik, ''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rnam bshad tshig don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 3:3–774, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_96A5D5.</ref> and ''Introduction to the Middle Way''.<ref>''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don rnam nges'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 6:383–752, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_ACD85B.</ref> He also composed many short works on the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta, including a short text containing instructions on how to put ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into practice.<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug sgom rim rin chen rgyan phreng'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 1:508–10, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_876785.</ref>

Scholastic and polemical writings in the Sakya school reached unprecedented heights during the time of Rongtön's students, which included three of the most renowned scholars of their time—Taktsang Sherab Rinchen (སྟག་ཚང་ཤེས་རབ་རིན་ཆེན་, 1405–1477), Śākya Chokden (ཤཱཀྱ་མཆོག་ལྡན་, 1428–1507), and Gorampa Sönam Senge (གོ་རམས་པ་བསོད་ནམས་སེང་གེ་, 1429–1489). Taktsang Sherab Rinchen composed two works on the sciences and philosophical tenet systems and became a vocal critic of Tsongkhapa’s understanding of emptiness but did not write anything significant on bodhicitta. Śākya Chokden wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo dang mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel dang bcas pa'i lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don rgya mtsho'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 3:7–192, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_B4FF1A.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See ''Dbu ma 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don gnad kyi ṭī ka'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 5:291–486, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_D11306.</ref> and on Sakya Paṇḍita's ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'i le'u gsum pa rig 'dzin sdom pa'i skabs kyi 'bel gtam rnam par nges pa legs bshad gser gyi thur ma'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 7:7–244, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_E519EB.</ref> He also wrote a commentary on ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' by Langri Thangpa.<ref>Shākya Chokden, ''Blo sbyong tshig rkang brgyad pa'i rnam bshad don gsum rab tu gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 23:57–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_C4DA34.</ref> An independent thinker, Śākya Chokden introduced a new interpretation of buddha-nature, and his philosophical interpretation often differed from early Sakya masters. Because of this, his colleague Gorampa Sönam Senge, a sharp commentator and debater, became the main authority who established and carried on the Sakya philosophical tradition. Like his teacher Rongtön and his colleague Śākya Chokden, Gorampa wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i dka' ba'i gnas rnam par bshad pa yum don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 6:7–756, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_B6315B.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i dkyus kyi sa bcad pa dang gzhung so so'i dka' ba'i gnas la dpyad pa lta ba ngan sel'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 5:479–758, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_73D3D6.</ref> and also ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Sdom pa gsum gyi rab tu dbye ba'i rnam bshad rgyal ba'i gsung rab kyi dgongs pa gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 9:7–436, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_6EA702.</ref> Gorampa, Śākya Chokden, and Taktsang Sherab Rinchen would become known as Goshāktaksum, a trio of Sakya scholars who were among the harshest critics of Tsongkhapa and his Geluk school of thought.

Another prolific scholar around this time, though not directly related to Sakya, was Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal (བོ་དོང་པཎ་ཆེན་ཕྱོགས་ལས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་, 1376–1451). Chokle Namgyal left behind perhaps the largest collection of writings in Tibet, including commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Dpal de kho na nyid 'dus pa'i rgya mtsho chen po las phar phyin gyi dka' 'grel lung gi snye ma'', in Bo dong phyogs las rnam rgyal gyi gsung 'bum gsar rnyed skor, Par gzhi dang po (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 2:5–386, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD97485_3FDD00.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, Gsung 'bum phyogs las rnam rgyal (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1969–1981), vol. 17, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22103_5D3941.</ref> and an exegetical commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa rab tu gsal ba'', in 'Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung, ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po, Par gzhi dang po (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 73:221–560, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_6A3765.</ref> Scholarship on bodhicitta thrived with the rise of scholasticism from the fourteenth century. The theory of bodhicitta was discussed as the first of the seventy topics covered in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and the practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya tradition took place through the bodhisattva vow and through the instruction on ''Parting from the Four Attachments''. The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya school especially flourished and would culminate in the works of masters such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the Sakya figure who rose to be the leading advocate of the Rime ecumenical movement in the nineteenth century. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo bequeathed an enormous collection of writings that included many dozens of texts on bodhicitta. While he did not write commentaries on the main classical texts as other scholarly Sakya masters did, he composed many works concerning the practice of bodhicitta in the form of practical instructions, liturgies, and historical accounts.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings beyond Asia ==
Although some early cultural transmissions and interactions between Asia and the West occurred in ancient times, the proper transmission of Buddhism, particularly Mahāyāna teachings, to the West has taken place only since the early twentieth century. The general trend of globalization facilitated by the advancement in communication technology and the travel industry, political upheavals such as World War II and the Korean War, and the rise of communism in China, Vietnam, and Tibet all led to the migration of people from Mahāyāna countries in Asia to the West and to the spread of bodhicitta teachings. Western interest in Buddhist cultures was at first largely driven by cultural curiosity and academic interest, often motivated by a colonial agenda. However, this changed by the middle of the twentieth century with the significant growth of serious interest in Eastern spirituality, the introduction of Buddhist Studies in Western universities as part of religious and theological studies, and the rise of Dharma centers for practicing Buddhists.

The initial transmission of Mahāyāna teachings to the West began with the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning of the twentieth century. Figures such as Soyen Shaku (1860–1919) and Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966) brought Zen Buddhism and the Mahāyāna teachings from the Sino-Japanese tradition, while explorer-writers such as Evans Wentz (1878–1965) and Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969) introduced the West to Tibetan Buddhism. These were followed by a rising number of scholars in leading academic institutions, many of whom undertook sustained and in-depth study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the same time, numerous Asian Buddhist teachers from Tibet and East Asia started to establish Dharma centers, particularly in Europe and North America, where people with an interest in Buddhism took up their spiritual practice. Such a diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in general and teachings on bodhicitta in particular was further enhanced by the rising popularity of figures such as the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987).

One way to gauge the spread of the teachings on bodhicitta is to look at the transmission of the main classics on bodhicitta—namely, Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Compendium of Training''. Early translations of these two works, which gained much popularity in India soon after their composition in the eighth century, appeared in Tibetan and Chinese in the ninth and tenth centuries respectively. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' was initially translated into Tibetan by Kawa Paltsek in the eighth century and into Chinese by Tiān Xīzāi (d.1000) in 985 CE. The Tibetan translation went through subsequent revisions at least twice in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by Lotsāwa Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055) and Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) respectively. The text was then translated into Mongolian by Čosgi Odser (ཆོས་ཀྱི་འོད་ཟེར་, fl. 1305–1321) in 1305. ''The Compendium of Training'' was translated into Tibetan by Yeshe De (eighth century) and later revised by Ngok Loden Sherab. It was translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa in the first half of the eleventh century.

In the centuries after their composition, both of these texts appear to have spread quickly beyond North India to places such as Kashmir and Kathmandu. For example, the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project has found forty-one manuscripts related to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', including twelve palm-leaf manuscripts, and the earliest one (located in Kathmandu) dated to 1180 CE. The only existing Sanskrit manuscript of ''The Compendium of Training'', now housed in Cambridge University Library, was also acquired from Kathmandu.

Although these texts attracted much attention in India, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and other traditional Buddhist areas, their transmission to the West occurred only around the beginning of the twentieth century. The first publication of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the Western world took place in Russia in 1889 when Ivan P. Minayev reviewed and published the Sanskrit text using the manuscript brought by Brian Houghton Hodgson from Kathmandu.<ref>I. P. Minayev, "La doctrine du salut dans le Bouddhisme posterieur," ''Zapiski'', no. 4 (1889).</ref> Similarly, ''The Compendium of Training'' was first published through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902 by Cecil Bendall, who used the Sanskrit manuscript obtained by Daniel Wright in 1875 from Kathmandu.<ref>Cecil Bendall, ed., ''Çikshāsamuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhistic Teaching Compiled by Çāntideva Chiefly from Earlier Mahāyāna-Sūtras'' (St Pétersburg: Commissionaires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1902), xxiv.</ref> The first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into a European language was undertaken by Louis de la Vallée Poussin, who translated the text in stages from 1892 onward and completed it in 1907. This was followed by five different translations into French in the twentieth century. Lionel David Barnett produced the first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into English in 1909, although he only did an abridged version. The first complete English translation of the verses appears to have been carried out by Marion Matics.<ref>Marion Leonidas Matics, ''Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The Bodhicaryāvatāra of the Buddhist Poet Śāntideva'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970).</ref> Since then, there have been some seventeen different English translations of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', and writings on this text continue to grow. It is today found in over a dozen European languages. It was also translated into Japanese by Ekai Kawaguchi (1866–1945) and published in 1921, and translations can be found in many other Asian languages.

Śāntideva’s other main work, ''The Compendium of Training'', was edited and published for the first time in the West by Cecil Bendell in 1902. He also started the translation, but it was finished by W. H. D. Rouse and published in 1922. As regards the translation of ''The Compendium of Training'' into other languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930. Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered it into modern Japanese from the Chinese version. The latest and most popular translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' today is the one by the Padmakara Translation Group and that of ''The Compendium of Training'' is the one by Charles Goodman.

Through these academic and religious translations and numerous other writings on bodhicitta, the teachings and practice of bodhicitta have today spread widely in many continents. Yet, the biggest impetus for the promotion of bodhicitta across the world has come from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), an ardent promoter of bodhicitta doctrine and practice. Throughout the decades following the exodus of Tibetans into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lama has tirelessly taught and written about bodhicitta and spread the teachings to large global audiences. Interest in Tibetan Buddhism in general and the bodhicitta teachings has grown rapidly as these teachings, which were previously inaccessible to foreigners, have become easily available.

Moreover, the teachings on bodhicitta and the bodhisattva ideal continue to appeal to modern progressive sensibilities, leading to their adoption and application even beyond religious circles. With influential leaders such as the Dalai Lama promoting these ideas, the rich tradition of bodhicitta—the way of wisdom and compassion—continues to spread in different parts of the world in the twenty-first century in a sustained effort to curb materialism, individualism, egocentricity, aggression, and environmental degradation, which are rampant in the world. This web resource contains extensive materials on bodhicitta in one place, launching a new chapter in the history of bodhicitta teachings. It provides timely support to help students and practitioners easily enhance their knowledge, deepen their understanding, and strengthen their practice.
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Articles/History of Bodhicitta Teachings

2026-09-01T15:21:46Z

KPhuntsho:

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== The Origins of Bodhicitta ==
Tradition would have it that bodhicitta existed since time immemorial, as all buddhas must start their journey by becoming a bodhisattva and one can only do so by cultivating bodhicitta—the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. However, from a historical perspective, the term ''bodhicitta'' and the idea of taking all sentient beings to the state of full enlightenment only emerges with the rise of the Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE. There is no explicit mention of the term ''bodhicitta'' in the Buddhist canon preserved in the Pāli language, which most scholars consider to be the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures.

One can find in the Pāli canon, particularly in the section on past buddhas and the Jātaka tales, references to the historical Buddha generating the first thoughts to become a buddha in his former lifetimes. A good example is the ascetic Sumedha, one of the previous rebirths of the historical Buddha, taking the vow to seek perfect enlightenment for the first time in the presence of Buddha Dīpaṃkara, who confirms his success in the future through a prediction.<ref>See "Sumedha's Wish" and "The History of Buddha Dīpaṅkara" in ''Chronicles of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhavaṃsa'') under Minor Collections (''Khuddakanikāya''), at suttacentral.net, https://suttacentral.net/bv?view=normal&lang=en. Retrieved on May 5, 2025.</ref> Similarly, we also find the story of the Buddha as the brahmin Jotipāla, who takes the vow once again in the presence of Buddha Kāśyapa and receives a prediction from him that he will one day become a buddha. These stories, along with many others about the Buddha as a bodhisattva and his aim to attain perfect enlightenment, are considered by later Buddhist thinkers to exemplify bodhicitta. No doubt, these accounts in the early canonical works contributed to the development of the concept and practice of bodhicitta in later times.

It is notable, however, that the early Buddhist scriptures portray the commitment to seek the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as a privilege reserved for only a select few individuals of high capacity. They do not explicitly mention the wish to pursue enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, nor do they articulate the noble aim of leading all sentient beings to the state of perfect enlightenment. Rather, in these early teachings, the focus is on the pursuit of individual liberation. Although some exceptional beings become fully enlightened buddhas with great compassion for the world, the teachings do not highlight the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta. The compassionate intention to benefit the world becomes more explicit in later times.

The ''Mahāvastu'' (the "Great Event" or "Great Story"), a book from around the second century BCE belonging to the Lokottaravādin school, is perhaps one of the earliest texts to explicitly mention the term ''bodhicitta'' and to present both aspects of bodhicitta: the aim for perfect enlightenment and wish to do so out of compassion for sentient beings.<ref>Jeom-suk Park claims that this appearance of bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' is indeed the first appearance of the term. See Jeom-suk Park, "Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism," ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 51, no. 2 (March 2003): 139.</ref> The verses that mention bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' (MVU) read as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na dhyānahānir bhavate kadācit /
na bodhicittaṃ jahate kadācit // (MVU 2.382)<ref>See Emmanuel Fauré, ed., ''Mahāvastu-avādana'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 2.382, 2.392, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. The #2 here stands for part 2 of the ''Mahāvastu'' as it has been arranged on GRETIL.</ref>

Never is there any falling off in meditation, and never
does he abandon the thought of enlightenment.<ref>See J. J. Jones, trans., ''The Mahāvastu'' (London: Luzac, 1952), 2:344.</ref>
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na bodhicittaṃ vijahati so kadācit /
na khaṇḍaśīlo bhavati asaṃvṛto vā // (MVU 2.392)

Never does he give up the thought of enlightenment.
He never becomes corrupt of morals nor dissolute.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 2:351, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>
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The accounts of the previous lives of the historical Buddha and of Buddha Maitreya (the future Buddha) in the ''Mahāvastu'' chronicle how, for example, during the time of Buddha Suprabhāsa, the historical Buddha as the monk Abhiya and Maitreya as King Vairocana made the aspiration to reach the state of perfect enlightenment and did so out of compassion to benefit the world. Such an aspiration to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of the world gradually evolved into the concept of bodhicitta with the emergence of Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE.
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|quote-text=yasmiṃ samaye satvā bhavensuḥ alenā atrāṇā aśaraṇā aparāyaṇā utsadalolā utsadadoṣā utsadamohā akuśalān dharmā samādāya vartensuḥ yobhūyena ca apāyapratipūrakā bhavensu tasmiṃ kāle tasmiṃ samaye aham anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyehaṃ // taṃ bhaveyaṃ bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukaṃpāya mahato janakāyasyārthāya hitāya sukhāya devānāṃ ca manuṣyāṇāṃ ca // (MVU 1.61)<ref>Fauré, ''Mahāvastu'', 1.161, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>

When beings come to be without refuge, support, protection, shelter, and succour, when they become characterized by fickleness, malice, and folly, when they live in accordance with wrong standards of conduct and generally go to crowd the worlds of woe, then may I awake to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. May I do so for the benefit and welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world, for the sake of the multitude, for the good of devas and men.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 1:50.</ref>
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The earliest Mahāyāna texts to discuss bodhicitta are said to be ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'' (''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'')<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_aSTAdazasAhasrikA-prajJApAramitA55-82.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>’</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fols. 1b1–286a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0012.</ref> and ''The Verses that Summarize the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'').<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8. See Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, ''Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 1.5, 5.5-8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ratnaguNasaMcayagAthA.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See also, ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fols. 1b1-19b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0013.</ref> These texts date to around 100 BCE and both contain the term ''bodhicitta'' and promote the concept of seeking enlightenment out of compassion and love for sentient beings.<ref>See ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'', 16.5 (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fol. 10a and ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 16b.</ref> The term ''bodhicitta'' appears at the beginning of ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', when Subhūti, through the blessings of the Buddha, submits to the Buddha that a bodhisattva "should train to not have pride in having bodhicitta, for such mind is not mind, but mind is by nature luminous."<ref>འདི་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་དེས་ཀྱང་རློམ་སེམས་སུ་མི་བགྱིད་པ་དེ་ལྟར་བསླབ་པར་བགྱིའོ། །དེ་ཅིའི་སླད་དུ་ཞེ་ན། འདི་ལྟར་སེམས་དེ་ནི་སེམས་མ་མཆིས་པ་སྟེ། སེམས་རང་བཞིན་ནི་འོད་གསལ་བ་ལགས་སོ།། ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 3a.</ref>

[[File:Text sample 1 for history of bodhicitta.jpg|900px|class=w-100 h-auto my-4 border rounded|]]

Similarly, in another passage from this same text, which Gareth Sparham calls the "Origin-Passage,"<ref>Gareth Sparham, "Indian Altruism: A Study of the Terms ''bodhicitta'' and ''cittotpāda''," ''Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15, no. 2 (1992): 224–42.</ref> Subhūti advises Śāriputra that a bodhisattva should not think of an action as hardship because one cannot serve the multitude of sentient beings with such a thought.<ref>See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'', fol. 16b. See Edward Conze, T''he Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary'' (Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation, 1975), 93.</ref> Only with the feeling of joy and love toward sentient beings, as though they were one’s father, mother, brother, or sister, will one be able to work for countless sentient beings and cultivate the intention to take all of these beings out of suffering for all times, just as one wishes to take oneself out of suffering for all times.

What, then, could have led to the development of such a noble and high ideal as bodhicitta? Dorji Wangchuk, in his authoritative work on bodhicitta entitled ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study on the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'', speculates that the rise of the bodhicitta concept may have been "driven by a psychological need of the Buddhists to compensate for the loss of the historical Buddha."<ref>See Dorji Wangchuk, ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 89.</ref> After the Buddha’s passing, some of his followers may have sought a substitute for the historical Buddha beyond the corpus of teachings and the Saṅgha community, who, as custodians of the Vinaya discipline that the Buddha designated as his representative, were entrusted with preserving his legacy after his departure. This may have been more common among those who chose to follow a hermetic and reclusive life outside the monastic institutions or sought a different understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and an alternative spiritual approach to what the mainstream monastic establishment offered. The Mahāyāna system is said to have emerged as a result of such a tendency,<ref>See Paul Williams, ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'' (London: Routledge, 2009).</ref> and it is likely that the need for a present buddha figure was strong among such people. In order to have a buddha, one must have a bodhisattva who aspires to become a buddha, and for that one needs to have the resolve or motivation to become a buddha. Thus, the concept of bodhicitta.

Gombrich and Wangchuk also argue that the Buddhist scriptures present the ultimate truth as being eternal and unchanging.<ref>Wangchuk, ''Resolve'', 78. Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'' (London: Routledge, 2006), 121.</ref> Because this truth remains immanent and eternal, individuals who achieve such realization emerge periodically throughout history. This understanding opens the possibility for other persons to attain the same enlightenment that the historical Buddha achieved. Thus, we see the emergence of a plurality of buddhas in early Buddhist teachings, which present six and twenty-four past buddhas as well as future buddhas such as Maitreya. With the rise of Mahāyāna, the pantheon of buddhas increases, and not only are there numerous past and future buddhas, one sees the idea of numerous present buddhas dwelling in different buddha realms situated in the vast expanse of the new Mahāyāna cosmology. With numerous buddhas as examples, cultivating bodhicitta to achieve buddhahood becomes a central theme.

Bodhicitta, as some scholars have argued, was also an expansion and improvement on the concept of ''prathamacitta'', or the initial resolve made by the Buddha to seek perfect enlightenment. This resolve is also presented as ''praṇidhāna'' (Pāli: ''paṇidhāna''), or the earnest aspiration to attain enlightenment. It is also thought to be an enhanced elucidation of ''adhyāśaya'' (Pāli: ''ajjhāsaya''), or the noble intention to earnestly seek enlightenment or benefit others. Some scholars considered ''adhyāśaya'' to be an abbreviation of ''anuttarāyāṃ samyaksambodhau cittam utpādayati'', or the generation of the thought of the unsurpassed perfect buddhahood. Many early Mahāyāna sources also contain the term ''cittotpāda''—the cultivation of the mind—which refers to the generation of the intention to seek perfect enlightenment. In later works, the terms ''bodhicitta'', ''cittotpāda'', and ''bodhicittotpāda'' came to be used synonymously, although they may have had different referents and connotations in the early period of Mahāyāna.

Whatever the main basis of the technical term ''bodhicitta'', the topic of bodhicitta was repeated and further elaborated in other sūtras belonging to the perfection of wisdom class and numerous other Mahāyāna sūtras that emerged in the subsequent centuries. The main sūtras containing the full-blown teachings on bodhicitta include ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra'') in the ''Avataṃsaka'' collection, ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''), ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' (''Sāgaramatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), ''The Questions of Ugraḥ Sūtra'' (''Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra''), ''The Questions of Vīradatta'' (''Vīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'' (''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''), and ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'' (''Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra''), to mention a few. In these sūtras, we see the development of the concept of bodhicitta along with the notions of compassion and wisdom. In many sources, such as ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' and ''The Basket of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisatvapiṭaka''), bodhicitta also refers to the ultimate nature of things or the luminous nature of the mind, which Wangchuk categorizes as ontological bodhicitta.

Besides the numerous canonical Mahāyāna sūtras that discuss and promote bodhicitta, we also see the rise of commentarial literature which deals with the theory and practice of bodhicitta. The foremost champion of the Mahāyāna teachings that included the concept of bodhicitta was Nāgārjuna, who lived roughly between 150 to 250 CE. In his ''Praise of the Diamond Mind'' (''Cittavajrastava'') and ''Praise of Dharmadhātu'' (''Dharmadhātustava''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Cittavajrastava'' (''Sems kyi rdo rje bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1121, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 69b4–70a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1121, and ''Dharmadhātustava'' (''Chos kyi dbyings su bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1118, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 1.63b5–67b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1118.</ref> Nāgārjuna uses the term ''bodhicitta'' to refer to the nature of mind and ultimate reality. However, in ''The Commentary on Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna, he presents bodhicitta as "the thought motivated by great compassion."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེས་བརླན་པའི་སེམས་ཀྱིས་ནི། །འབད་པས་བསྒོམ་པར་བྱ་བ་ཡིན། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittavivaraṇa'' (''Byang chub sems kyi 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1800, rgyud, vol. 35, ngi, fol. 38b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1800.</ref> This, in later times, came to be called ''relative bodhicitta''. In his ''Compendium of Sūtras'' (''Sūtrasamuccaya''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' (''Mdo kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3934, dbu ma, vol. 110, ki, fols. 141b1–215a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3934.</ref> Nāgārjuna presents numerous citations from sūtras to illustrate the rarity and importance of many aspects of Mahāyāna practice, including the supreme thought of awakening, or bodhicitta. Another text on how to take the vow of bodhicitta entitled ''The Ritual for Generating Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādavidhi''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi'' (''Byang chub tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga''), in Derge Tengyur D3966, dbu ma, vol. 112, gi, fols. 237a4–239a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3966.</ref> which contains some detail on the bodhisattva aspirations, is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The Chinese tradition also ascribes to Nāgārjuna a text called ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'' (''Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun''),<ref>For an English translation of this text, see Minoru Kiyota, trans., "The Bodhicitta Śāstra," in ''Esoteric Texts'' (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2015), 103–29.</ref> a tantric text which contains the concept of bodhicitta both as the altruistic mind to take all beings to perfect enlightenment and as the ultimate nature of the mind, or buddha-nature. There is no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of this text.

However, the text attributed to Nāgārjuna which explicitly discusses bodhicitta is his discourse to his royal disciple, claimed to be a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty who ruled in the Deccan plateau in the second century. In fact, Nāgārjuna wrote two homilies, but his ''Epistle to a Friend'' (''suhṛllekhaḥ''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''suhṛllekhaḥ'' (''bshes pa'i spring yig''), in Derge Tengyur D4182,spring yig, vol. 173, nge, fols. 40b4–46b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4182.</ref> does not discuss bodhicitta as does his other work, ''The Precious Garland'' (''Ratnavāli'').<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref> This work discusses bodhicitta, the bodhisattva practices, the stages on the bodhisattva path, and the bodhisattva goal.

In addition to these texts, the Tibetan Tengyur also contains several aspirational prayers for bodhisattva practice that are attributed to Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna’s teachings on bodhicitta, which tradition claims he received from Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom, was passed down mainly through the adherents of the Middle Way school that he initiated. This tradition came to be known as the Profound View tradition and was espoused and propagated by many Buddhist masters from famous universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.

Another famous lineage of bodhicitta teachings known as the Vast Conduct tradition was passed down from Asaṅga (fourth century), who is said to have received the teachings from Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to this tradition, Asaṅga propitiated Maitreya for twelve long years without receiving a vision of Maitreya, even in a dream. Disappointed, Asaṅga gives up the practice of propitiation and leaves his hermitage when he encounters a wretched bitch in agony as her rotting hind is being consumed by maggots. Out of intense compassion, Asaṅga feeds a bit of his own flesh to the dog and uses his tongue to take out the maggots. Disgusted, he does so with closed eyes, but his tongue touches the ground instead of the dog, and Lo, as he opens his eyes, he sees before him Maitreya with his sublime aura. "You have no compassion," Asaṅga complains to Maitreya for not even showing up in his dream, although he worshiped Maitreya for a dozen years. Maitreya tells Asaṅga that he has been near Asaṅga all along but Asaṅga could not see him. Having removed some karmic obscurations after a long retreat, Asaṅga could see Maitreya as a wretched dog. Then, as compassion for the dog stirred within him, Asaṅga removed the obscurations in his mind, making him able to see the divine figure of Maitreya. Maitreya asked Asaṅga to carry him on his shoulder and ask people what they could see. Most people in the town saw nothing, but an old woman saw him carrying a miserable bitch. Subsequently, Maitreya is said to have taken Asaṅga miraculously to Tuṣita Heaven and to have given him the teachings on Maitreya's five works. The three longer treatises of these five works—namely, ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' (''Abhisamayālaṃkāra''), ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), and ''The Ultimate Continuum of Mahāyāna'' (''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'')—varyingly discuss the concept of bodhicitta as an altruistic thought of enlightenment or the nature of one's mind.

In ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', bodhicitta is discussed as the first of the seventy topics related to the Buddhist ground, path, and fruition. We find in this book a very clear definition of bodhicitta, although it uses the term ''cittotpāda''.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=''Cittotpāda'' is the wish to attain the perfect full enlightenment for the sake of others.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་གཞན་དོན་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་རྫོགས་པའི་བྱང་ཆུབ་འདོད། ། Maitreya, ''Abhisamayālaṃkāra'' (''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3786, vol. 80, sher phyin, ka, fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3786.</ref>
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This verse remains the most concise and popular definition of bodhicitta. The text also breaks down bodhicitta into twenty-two types using similes and aligns them to the progression of the bodhisattva path. This same concept is further elaborated in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), in which a whole chapter is dedicated to discussing bodhicitta.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshigs le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, vol. 123, sems tsam, phi, fols. 1a1–39a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref> These two texts by Maitreya and the commentaries on them contain the most detailed theoretical discussions on bodhicitta. In ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', we find not only discussions on relative bodhicitta (i.e., the altruistic thought of enlightenment) but also on ultimate bodhicitta, which is the pristine wisdom discerning the ultimate nature of things.

Asaṅga elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta through his own ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi''), which is a part of his larger work entitled ''The Stages of Yoga Practice'' (''Yogācārabhūmi''). In this work, he points out that bodhicitta has two specific objects.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Therefore, the cultivation of the mind [of enlightenment] aims at enlightenment and also at the welfare of sentient beings.<ref>Asaṅga, ''Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ'' (''Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa las byang chub sems dpa'i sa''), in Derge Tengyur D4037, vol. 129, sems tsam, wi, fol. 7b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4037.</ref>
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It is clear from this statement that Asaṅga is commenting on the definition of bodhicitta provided by Maitreya in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and also in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''. Both Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' and Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' also present the causes and conditions for cultivating bodhicitta. The latter became the main source for the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow in the Vast Conduct tradition. Passed down through Asaṅga, this line of transmission for taking the bodhisattva vow became frequently, though not exclusively, associated with the Mind Only/Yoga Practice school of Mahāyāna. The tradition later became known as the Vast Conduct tradition and was propagated by some of the eminent teachers of bodhicitta.

Besides Nāgārjuna and Asaṅga, the Tibetan tradition also includes Aśvaghoṣa among the early proponents of bodhicitta. Aśvaghoṣa, who is generally believed to have lived sometime within the first two centuries of the common era, was an acclaimed Buddhist poet, dramatist, and the author of poetic works such as ''The Acts of the Buddha'' (''Buddhacarita''), ''Beautiful Nanda'' (''Saundarananda''), and ''The Story of Śāriputra'' (''Śāriputraprakaraṇa''). The Chinese tradition ascribes ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'' (''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra'', ''Dasheng qixin lun'') to Aśvaghoṣa, although modern scholars contest this attribution. The Tibetan Tengyur canon contains two works on relative and ultimate bodhicitta that are considered to be by Aśvaghoṣa,<ref>Aśvaghoṣa, ''Saṃvṛtibodhicittabhāvanopadeśavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge pad+ma spungs pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3911, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 13b4–15a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3911, and ''Paramārthabodhicittabhāvanākramavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Don dam pa byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge rin po che'i sgron ma zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3912, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 15a6–16b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3912.</ref> but there is no known record of the transmission of teachings on bodhicitta from Aśvaghoṣa.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings in India and Beyond ==
It is not clear when the names given to the two traditions of Mahāyāna teachings—the Vast Conduct tradition and the Profound View tradition—were introduced, and the names appear to have undergone different phases. However, written records clearly point to the actual teachings on bodhicitta being passed down through generations of Nāgārjuna's and Asaṅga's followers. For the Profound View school, after Nāgārjuna, his disciple Āryadeva promoted bodhicitta in his writings, particularly in ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yogic Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'').<ref>Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'' (''Bstan bcos bzhi brgya pa zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3846, vol. 97, dbu ma, tsha, fols. 1a1–18a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> "The cultivation of the initial thought of enlightenment," he claimed, "outshines even the merit which can make all beings on earth universal monarchs."<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་སེམས་དང་པོ། །ས་སྟེངས་སྐྱེ་བོ་ཐམས་ཅད་ནི། །འཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བ་ཉིད་འགྱུར་བ། །དེ་དག་བསོད་ནམས་ལས་ཁྱད་འཕགས། ། Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'', fol. 6a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> Similarly, Bhāvaviveka (ca. 500–570 CE) composed his ''Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā''), devoting the opening chapter to the topic of bodhicitta. In it he writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Bodhicitta is the seed of buddhas
Adorned with loving-kindness,
Compassion and knowledge.
The wise shall not abandon it.<ref>བྱམས་པ་དང་ནི་སྙིང་རྗེ་དང་། །ཤེས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྒྱན་པ་ཡི། །སངས་རྒྱས་ས་བོན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Bhāvaviveka, ''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā'' (''Dbu ma'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3855, vol. 98, dbu ma, dza, fols. 2a–2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3855.</ref>
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Candrakīrti, the author of ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''),<ref>Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, vol. 102, dbu ma, 'a, fols. 201b1–219a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta in the context of the Mahāyāna path, particularly as understood in the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna. Although Candrakīrti had issues with Bhāvaviveka on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s logical procedures to establish the ultimate truth, they shared the same zest for underscoring the importance of bodhicitta on the bodhisattva path to perfect enlightenment. Candrakīrti organized his famous work using the ten stages of the bodhisattva path and the different levels of bodhicitta. Right at the outset of the work, he declares that bodhicitta, compassion, and the understanding of nonduality are the causes of bodhisattvas.

The most influential champion of bodhicitta teachings in India, however, was undoubtedly Śāntideva, the author of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'')<ref>Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fols. 1a1–40a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> and ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'').<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 3a2–194b52, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. See also the verse summary: ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 1a1–3a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref> Śāntideva probably lived around the beginning of the eighth century CE and was likely born in North India, although we have no evidence or records from his time. Most of what we know about him comes from accounts of his life written long after his time by faithful followers. Like the Buddha, he is said to have been born as a prince in North India but to have renounced his kingdom to pursue a spiritual career through the guidance of his tutelary deity Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom. Śāntideva is said to have reached a high level of erudition and spiritual enlightenment through Mañjuśrī’s blessings, although, outwardly, he appeared as a lazy monk, indulging in eating, sleeping, and relieving himself, thus earning him the nickname Busuku.

As the story goes, it was to mock his indolence and to shame him that his peers persuaded Śāntideva to give a public sermon. Śāntideva agreed and is said to have miraculously climbed on the unreasonably high throne they purposely set up to mock him. Śāntideva then asked the congregation whether they wanted an exposition of a text that already existed or something new. They asked for a new teaching, resulting in Śāntideva's delivery of the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'', or ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva is said to have levitated into the sky as he recited the verse "When existence and nonexistence do not remain before the mind, as there is no other aspect, the mind comes to rest without any grasping."<ref>གང་ཚེ་དངོས་དང་དངོས་མེད་དག ། བློ་ཡི་མདུན་ན་མི་གནས་པ། །དེ་ཚེ་རྣམ་པ་གཞན་མེད་པས། །དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི། ། Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 32a.4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> He rose higher and higher until he disappeared, his voice still being heard. The disappearance into sky could be understood as an allegory for the highest experience of transcendence and emptiness of all conceptual thoughts in Śāntideva’s philosophical system. However, an old manuscript recently discovered in Drepung Monastery states that Śāntideva’s reputation soared after his recitation, resulting in much veneration and offering. And Śāntideva is said to have left Nālandā to avoid the distraction entailed by such attention.<ref>Anonymous, ''Spyod 'jug gi bsdus don dang slob dpon zhi ba lha'i lo rgyus'', in Bka' gdams gsung 'bum phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, Par gzhi dang po (Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), 6:9–14, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD153536_DD71AE.</ref> Thus, Śāntideva's miraculous disappearance into the sky likely represents a later mythological embellishment of the actual circumstances surrounding his departure.

Whatever the case may be of its origins, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' has arguably become the most influential Buddhist work in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition on bodhicitta. In this work, Śāntideva lays out the practice of bodhicitta in ten chapters, making bold claims such as:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Those who wish to crush the many sorrows of existence,
Who wish to quell the pain of living beings,
Who wish to have experience of a myriad joys
Should never turn away from bodhichitta. (1.8)<ref>སྲིད་པའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་གཞོམ་འདོད་ཅིང་། །སེམས་ཅན་མི་བདེ་བསལ་བར་འདོད་པ་དང་། །བདེ་མང་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་སྤྱོད་པར་འདོད་པས་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྟག་ཏུ་གཏང་མི་བྱ། ། This translation belongs to the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 32. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 2a.4–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Since its propagation in the eighth century, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', combining highly inspirational exhortations and incisive philosophical arguments in an evocative poetic language, appears to have become the ''locus classicus'' for bodhicitta study and practice, used and cited by many writers after its appearance. It was Śāntideva who also explicitly presented the meditation on equality between self and others and exchange between self and others as a way to cultivate bodhicitta, as illustrated by the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Do not be downcast, but marshal all your powers;
Make an effort; be the master of yourself!
Practice the equality of self and other;
Practice the exchange of self and other. (7.16)<ref>སྒྱིད་ལུག་མེད་པར་དཔུང་ཚོགས་དང་། །ལྷུར་བླང་བདག་ཉིད་དབང་བྱ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་མཉམ་པ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་བརྗེ་བར་བགྱི། ། This translation is by the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 99. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 20b.5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Traditional Tibetan scholars claimed that over a hundred Indian commentaries were written on Śāntideva’s famous work, but there are only twelve Indian commentaries on it available today. They include works by Prajñākaramati, Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Kalyāṇadeva, Vairocanarakṣita, Vinītadeva, Vibhūticandra, Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, and Atiśa.

While ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' is an original work by Śantideva written in poetic verse, his other major work, ''The Compendium of Training'', is an anthology of citations of passages from sūtras interspersed with his own words. The two works most likely developed simultaneously in an iterative process, the latter being a compilation of sources for the former in verse. ''The Compendium of Training'' was condensed into a shorter verse summary, the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'', the gist of which is presented by the following verses.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions.
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them.<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྡོམ་པ་ནི། །རྒྱས་པར་ཐེག་པ་ཆེ་ལས་འབྱུང་། །གང་གིས་ལྟུང་བར་མི་འགྱུར་བའི། །གནད་ཀྱི་གནས་རྣམས་འདིར་རིག་བྱ། །བདག་གི་ལུས་དང་ལོངས་སྤྱོད་དང་། །དགེ་བ་དུས་གསུམ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས། །སེམས་ཅན་ཀུན་ལ་བཏང་བ་དང་། །དེ་བསྲུང་དག་པ་སྤེལ་བའོ། These are verses 3 and 4 of the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā''. For the Tibetan text, see ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 1b.3–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
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Despite being an important source for bodhisattva practice, there are only two commentarial works on ''The Compendium of Training''. One is an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and the other is a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa.

The study and practice of bodhicitta within the Profound View tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism reached unprecedented heights following the eighth century, largely through the contributions of Śāntideva. In addition to the masters who commented on Śāntideva’s works mentioned above, there were other masters such as Mañjuśrīmitra, Jñānagarbha, Jetāri, Puṇyaśrī, Dhanaśrī, Vimalamitra, Śāntarakṣita, and Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla, who took up the scholarship and practice on bodhicitta. Among them, Mañjuśrīmitra and Jñānagarbha focused on the exposition of ultimate bodhicitta, which discerns the ultimate reality of emptiness, while Jetāri wrote a manual for taking the bodhisattva vow and a practice manual for beginners. In his treatise entitled ''Presenting Twelve Points on the Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa''), Mañjuśrīmitra argues that bodhicitta is the mother of all buddhas, the basis of all disciplines, the foundation of all merit, the source of all enlightened qualities, the basis of liberation, and the supreme path leading to enlightenment.<ref>See ''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2578, vol. 65, rgyud, ngu, fols. 44b4–59a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2578.</ref> However, the most prolific Indian author on bodhicitta belonging to the Middle Way school in the first millennium after Śāntideva was Kamalaśīla. He wrote his trilogy on ''The Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama'') in which he presented the gradual process of the bodhisattva path. He and his teacher Śāntarakṣita, both of whom visited Tibet in the second half of the eighth century, and Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, who traveled to Tibet in the middle of the eleventh century, were the leading doyens who transmitted the teachings on bodhicitta to Tibet.

As for the Vast Conduct tradition, which is supposed to have come down from Maitreya and the pioneer advocate Asaṅga, it continued through Vasubandhu, the younger brother of Asaṅga, who initially followed a non-Mahāyāna school and was critical of Asaṅga's teachings, but later embraced the Mahāyāna school of Mind Only. Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Asaṅga's ''The Compendium of Mahāyāna'' (''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''), and ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Aspiration to Good Actions'' (''Āryabhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja''). Additionally, a work entitled ''Treatise on the Generation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādaśāstra'') is attributed to him. Other commentators and masters who continued the teachings on bodhicitta in this line include Vasubandhu's students Sthiramati, Dignāga, and Guṇaprabha, who wrote various commentaries. They were followed by Jinaputra, Jñānaśrī, Niḥsvabhāvatā, Parahitabhadra, and Sāgaramegha, whose works are included in the Tibetan Tengyur canon. A prominent master of this line was the householder Candragomin,<ref>While there is no complete scholarly consensus, the majority of modern scholarship seems to place Candragomin in either the fifth–sixth centuries CE (the earlier estimate) or more commonly in the seventh century CE (approximately 600–650 CE, with the latter being the more widely accepted timeframe among contemporary scholars.</ref> who authored a treatise called ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'')<ref>See ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4081, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 166b1–167a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4081.</ref> and is said to have challenged Candrakīrti in debate. Śāntarakṣita and Bodhibhadra wrote commentaries on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses''.<ref>See ''Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti'' (''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4082, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 167a6–184b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4082, and ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśakapañjikā'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa'i dka' 'grel''), in Derge Tengyur D4083, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 184b3–217b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4083.</ref> The teachings and instructions in this tradition were passed down to Atiśa mainly by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa in the tenth century.

While the teachings on bodhicitta spread through these two Mahāyāna lineages, Mahāyāna Buddhism also saw the rise of yet another mode of practice and transmission. This was the emergence of what came to be called Vajrayāna or tantric Buddhism, as the system was mainly based on a body of literature called tantras. Purported to be the words of the Buddha just like the Mahāyāna sūtras, these tantras presented a path to enlightenment that included a wide range of mental, verbal, and embodied tools, as well as radical techniques. Focused on the unraveling of the innate mind of enlightenment, it adopted a syncretic approach, using a great number of non-Buddhist rituals and elements infused with Buddhist philosophies and values to bring about an expedient internal transformation. The tantric masters and texts underscored the importance of bodhicitta as an indispensable component of the Vajrayāna path. They promoted the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta as an intention to seek buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings but championed the understanding of bodhicitta as the realization of the innate nature of the mind and existence. We find also in the Vajrayāna teachings the presentation of symbolic and embodied forms of bodhicitta, which Dorji Wangchuk categorizes as psycho-physiological and semeiological bodhicitta. These esoteric Vajrayāna teachings on bodhicitta flourished in India toward the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, when it also started to spread to Tibet.

A couple centuries after their emergence in India, the teachings on bodhicitta began to spread beyond India. The teachings first traveled to Central Asia and from there to China. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', for instance, was translated by Lokakṣema in 179 BCE. This was followed by the translation of many other sūtras and commentaries by translators such as Paramārtha, Dharmarakṣa, Kumārajīva, Buddhabhadra, and Dharmakṣema in the subsequent centuries. These included the main sūtras containing teachings on bodhicitta such as ''The Flower Ornament Sūtra'' (''Avataṃsakasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'', ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'', ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'', ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'', ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'', and the other versions of the perfection of wisdom sūtras. From the accounts of Āryadeva and Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, we can also surmise that the teachings on bodhicitta spread to Ceylon and southeastern parts of Asia.

== The Transmission of Bodhicitta Teachings to Tibet ==
Tibetan historians claim that some Buddhist sūtras, such as ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' (དཔང་སྐོང་ཕྱག་བརྒྱ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ།)<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 1b1–5b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267. No Sanskrit or Chinese versions of this sūtra are known to exist.</ref> and ''The Basket's Display'' (''Karaṇḍavyūhasūtra''),<ref>''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa za ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur, D116, vol. 51, mdo sde, pa, fols. 200a3–247b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0116.</ref> reached Tibet during the reign of the twenty-eighth Yarlung king, Lha Thothori, sometime in the fifth century. Although no one in Tibet understood the texts at that time, they contained teachings on altruism and the bodhisattva path. While ''The Basket's Display'' mainly focuses on the virtues of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion, and his mantra, ''oṃ maṇi padme huṃ'', ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' contains homages to buddhas, the twelve sets of the Buddha's teachings, and bodhisattvas. It also explicitly mentions bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I, by the name . . . from now on until I reach the heart of enlightenment, shall cultivate the thought of enlightenment. I shall never let go of the thought of enlightenment. May I never be separated from the sublime virtuous friend.<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 5a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267.</ref>
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The Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on bodhicitta in particular may have spread to Tibet in some form in the seventh century during the reign of the thirty-second Yarlung monarch Songtsen Gampo. During this time Songtsen Gampo took two Buddhist brides—one from Tang China and another from the Kathmandu Valley—and also sent his minister Thönmi Sambhoṭa to India to learn Sanskrit. While we see the general introduction of the Buddhist system at this time, there are no specific records of texts related to bodhicitta having been translated or taught during this period, although later records such as the ''Maṇi Kabum'' would have us believe that teachings on compassion and bodhicitta were promulgated. Tibetan Buddhists also believe that the study and practice of bodhicitta and compassion formed a fundamental part of Songtsen Gampo’s promotion of the Buddhist religion, as he was himself considered an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion.

Historical records clearly point to the dissemination of teachings on bodhicitta in Tibet in the eighth century during the reign of Trisong Detsen, the thirty-seventh king of the Yarlung dynasty. Besides inviting to Tibet numerous Buddhist scholars and masters such as Śāntarakṣita, Padmasambhava, and Vimalamitra from India and Mohoyen from China, Tri Songdetsen initiated extensive Buddhist projects, including the construction of Samye Monastery, the institution of the first Tibetan monastic community, and above all the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan from Sanskrit and Chinese. A great number of Mahāyāna sūtras, which contained the teachings on bodhicitta, as well as many tantras and commentaries, were translated toward the end of the eighth century and beginning of the ninth century, as witnessed by the catalogs of texts created around that time. For instance, ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', which elaborates on the cultivation of bodhicitta, and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', two of the main treatises discussing bodhicitta, were translated as part of this massive translation program.

Similarly, tantric texts such as ''The Garland of Views: The King of Pith Instructions'' (''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'')<ref>*''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'' (''Man ngag gi rgyal po lta ba'i 'phreng ba''), in Pe cing Tengyur Q4726, vol. 77, rgyud 'grel, bu, 414b7–419b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG13126_4726.</ref> by Padmasambhava and ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (aka ''Bodhicittabhāvanā'') by Mañjuśrīmitra,<ref>*''Bodhicittabhāvanā'' (''Byang sems rdo la gser zhun''), also known as ''Meditation on Bodhicitta'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2591, vol. 66, rgyud 'grel, cu, 1b1–4b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2591.</ref> which explain the concept of ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric context, were also translated and taught. Mañjuśrīmitra praises bodhicitta in the latter text as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All dharmas considered to be sublime features of liberation
Are qualities of perfecting bodhicitta; they come from bodhicitta.<ref>ཇི་སྙེད་འཕགས་པའི་རྣམ་གྲོལ་ཆོས་སུ་བསྙད་པ་དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྫོགས་ལས་དེ་ཡི་ཡོན་ཏན་དེ་ལས་དེ་དག་བྱུང་། Mañjuśrīmitra, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems sde spyi'i snying po'i bstan bcos byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun'', in Damngak Dzö, vol. 1, ka, 182, fol. 9b2–3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun#tab=Tibetan_Text.</ref>
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Many texts now included in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras (Nyingma Gyubum), such as ''The All Creating King of Bodhicitta'' (''Kulayarājatantra''),<ref>''Sarvadharmamahāśantibodhicittakulayarāja'' (''Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems kun byed rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D828, vol. 97, rnying rgyud, ka, 1b1–86a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0828.</ref> formulate the concept of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and appear to have been translated by Vairocana and others during this period. History also records a debate between the gradualist Indian tradition, led by Kamalaśīla, and the simultaneist Chinese tradition, led by Mohoyen, with King Trisong Detsen as the judge. The Indian side that promoted a gradualist approach to the cultivation of bodhicitta is said to have won, and the king is said to have declared the gradualist Indian tradition to be the official system in Tibet. This period of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet came to be known as the early diffusion period, or ''ngadar'', in contrast to the later diffusion period, or ''chidar'', which took place in Tibet from the eleventh century onward.

The great Buddhist intellectual and spiritual activity in Tibet that included the translation of innumerable works and the open promotion of Buddhist teachings stopped in the middle of the ninth century. As the Yarlung dynasty collapsed due to internecine conflicts, Tibet entered a century and half of political fragmentation and intellectual decline. However, with the revival of Buddhist systems toward the end of the tenth century, Tibet witnessed a resurgence of the study and practice of bodhicitta both in the exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric traditions. Those who preserved the teachings from the early diffusion period became known as the Ancient, or Nyingma, school, while others who brought new teachings from India, Nepal, and Kashmir came to be known as the New, or Sarma, schools. The new schools included some of the leading sects such as Kadam, Kagyu, and Sakya.

Within the Nyingma school, the teachings on bodhicitta continued through the received tradition known as the ''kama'' teachings as well as the new revelations known as ''terma''. The received ''kama'' tradition, which covers the complete range of the Buddhist system, including the nine vehicles, passed on the study and practice of bodhicitta as an essential component of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna path. Most of the books in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras, considered to be apocryphal writings by later critics, began to circulate as Buddhism was revived in the eleventh century. Many of these works described bodhicitta as the state of perfect enlightenment which is latent in beings. This was further enhanced by the ''terma'' literature, which is believed to have been hidden by Padmasambhava and his coterie in the eighth and ninth centuries to be revealed and disseminated by treasure discoverers, or ''tertön''s, at the right time in the future. Composed mostly of ritual liturgies and meditation instructions, the numerous cycles of rediscovered teachings also promoted bodhicitta as a fundamental aspect of Vajrayāna practice.

The new schools equally underscored the importance of bodhicitta in both exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric study and practice. Among the most notable developments in this period was the arrival of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1055) in Tibet in 1042 CE at the invitation of Jangchub Ö, the king of Western Tibet. Historians narrate that with the chaotic and decentralized revival of Buddhism in Tibet toward the end of tenth century, the kings of Western Tibet were alarmed by the wayward conduct of some Buddhist teachers who were abusing tantric practices by making some of the secretive teachings public and taking some of the symbolic teachings literally. Thus, the kings felt the urgency to correct this by inviting an authoritative and eminent master from India, a bill which Atiśa fit perfectly, as he had become renowned as the most erudite and accomplished master in India by this time. Traditional Tibetan historians claim that Yeshe Ö, the monk ruler of Western Tibet and uncle of Jangchub Ö, was taken prisoner in a conflict with the Garlog Turks, who demanded a ransom in gold equal to his size. Yeshe Ö is said to have instructed his nephew to use the gold his nephew had raised to invite Atiśa to Tibet, rather than giving it to the Turks. This story, contested by some modern scholars, is often told to highlight the personal sacrifices made by Tibet’s kings to bring the sacred teachings of the Buddha to Tibet.<ref>See Sam van Schaik, ''Tibet: A History'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 57.</ref>

After two separate emissaries to India led by Gya Lotsāwa Tsöndru Senge (བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེངྒེ་, d.u.) and Naktso Lotsāwa Tsultrim Gyalwa (ནག་འཚོ་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱལ་བ་, 1011–1064) respectively, and after much effort to persuade the abbot of Vikramaśīla, Atiśa was allowed to travel to Tibet. Jangchub Ö received him in Western Tibet, and during his time in the royal court, Atiśa composed ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhipathapradīpa'', (''Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma''), in Derge Tengyur D3947, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 238a6–241a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3947.</ref> a treatise which laid out the spiritual path for three types of persons. This text, along with its autocommentary, highlighted the ethical aspects of the Buddhist path, including the practice of bodhicitta, and would become the exemplar of the ''lamrim'' genre of literature on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Atiśa also composed the short text ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' (''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 294b7–296a1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref> which supplemented his earlier work on the conduct of the bodhisattva. He writes in it:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Cultivate loving kindness and compassion;
Hold firm the thought of enlightenment. (v. 5)<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེ་བསྒོམ་བྱ་ཞིང༌། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ནི་བརྟན་པར་བྱ། ། ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 295a.2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref>
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Besides these two main works on bodhicitta and Mahāyāna, Atiśa also composed numerous other treatises and commentaries, many of them at the request of his Tibetan students. His teachings were spread by his many students, including Dromtön Gyalwai Jungne (འབྲོམ་སྟོན་རྒྱལ་བའི་འབྱུང་གནས་, 1004–64), his lay disciple who established Reting Monastery and launched the Kadam tradition, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab (རྔོག་ལེགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ, eleventh century), who founded Sangpu Neuthok, the famous Buddhist scholastic center in Tibet that flourished from the eleventh–fourteenth centuries. The three chief students of Dromtönpa—Potowa Rinchen Sal (པོ་ཏོ་བ་རིན་ཆེན་གསལ་, 1027–1105), Chengawa Tsultrim Bar (སྤྱན་སྔ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་འབར་, 1033/8–1103), and Puchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen (ཕུ་ཆུང་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1031–1106)—often referred to as the three brothers (''སྐུ་མཆེད་རྣམ་གསུམ་''), developed the Kadam tradition further and initiated the rise of the rich and powerful tradition of Lojong, or mind training. At the heart of the Lojong tradition is the practice of cultivating bodhicitta, particularly through the seven points of cause and effect.

While Atiśa was on his way to Tibet, he met Marpa Chökyi Lodro (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012?–1097) in Kathmandu. Marpa, who declined to be Atiśa’s translator, was at that time on his trip to India to receive teachings from Nāropa. Having received teachings from many masters such as Nāropa, Maitrīpa, and Jñānagarbha, Marpa started giving teachings to numerous disciples in southern Tibet, leading to the establishment of the Marpa Kagyu school. Teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta were disseminated through this school, and they were especially integrated into the instructions on Mahāmudrā and the Six Yogas of Nāropa. These teachings would spread widely in the subsequent centuries through the different subschools founded by the followers of Marpa.

Before Marpa embarked on his journeys to India, he studied under Drokmi Śākya Yeshe (འབྲོག་མི་ཤཱཀྱ་ཡེ་ཤེས་, 992?–1043/1072), whose fees turned out to be too high for Marpa to afford. Drokmi had traveled to Nepal and India before Marpa and studied under many Buddhist teachers. He also translated many texts, but his specialization lay in the teachings on the Path and Result, or Lamdre (ལམ་འབྲས་), which he received from Gayadhāra (ག་ཡ་དྷ་ར་, 994–1043) and Prajñendraruci (aka Vīravajra, eleventh century). In Tibet, he passed on these teachings to his main disciples, including Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya school, which has championed the teachings of the Path and Result, of which bodhicitta is an essential component.

The bodhicitta teachings propagated by Marpa and Drokmi relied heavily on extensive new tantras such as the ''Hevajra'', ''Cakrasaṃvara'', and ''Guhyasamaja''. They promoted the concept of bodhicitta both in its ethical dimension as the compassionate intention to take all sentient beings to perfect enlightenment and its ontological dimension as the state of ultimate reality. The following statement from the ''Hevajratantra'' sums up this unity:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=That which is called bodhicitta
Is the nonduality of emptiness and compassion.<ref>སྟོང་ཉིད་སྙིང་རྗེ་དབྱེར་མེད་པ། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་རབ་ཏུ་བརྗོད། ། ''Hevajratantra'' (''Kye'i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D417, vol. 80, rgyud, nga, fol. 13a.3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0417.</ref>
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The tantric teachings of the newer Marpa Kagyu and Sakya schools also discuss what Dorji Wangchuk calls the "psycho-physiological form of bodhicitta"—referring to seminal bodily fluids within tantric practices that utilize physical and psychic energies as catalysts for speedy spiritual transformation.<ref>For this discussion in Wangchuk, see chapter 6 in ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 217–23.</ref> Thus, the discussion of bodhicitta in such tantric contexts saw new heights in Tibetan religious discourse as the tantric schools gained prominence and became mainstream Buddhist traditions in Tibet.

Another important tradition through which the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread in Tibet, although the tradition did not take off to the same extent as the Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, and Sakya, is the Shangpa Kagyu, which originated in the famous scholar and meditation master Khyungpo Naljor (Khyung po rnal 'byor, 1050–1127). Khyungpo Naljor visited India and Nepal around seven times and studied under numerous teachers, his main masters being the female savants Sukhasiddhi and Nāropa’s sister Niguma, from whom he received the Six Yogas of Niguma. Similarly, the practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through the tradition of Severance, or Chö (''གཅོད་''), which is said to have begun with Machik Labdron (མ་གཅིག་ལབ་སྒྲོན་, 1055–1149), and Pacification, or Zhije (''ཞི་བྱེད་''), a tradition attributed to Padampa Sangye (ཕ་དམ་པ་སངས་རྒྱས་, eleventh century). ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' by the brahmin Āryadeva, which is a root text of the Chöd tradition, states at the outset:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Take up with respect the practice of refuge and thought of enlightenment
Follow the precepts like protecting one’s eyes.
The precepts of the bodhisattva
Should not be abandoned even at the cost of one’s life. v.5<ref>གུས་པས་སྐྱབས་འགྲོ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་བླང་། །བླངས་པའི་བསླབ་བྱ་མིག་བཞིན་བསྲུང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་བསླབ་བྱ་ནི། །སྲོག་གི་ཕྱིར་ཡང་སྤང་མི་བྱ། ། Āryadeva, ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod (Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999), 14:2-3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:%27phags_pa_shes_rab_kyi_pha_rol_tu_phyin_pa%27i_man_ngag Retrieved on 4/6/2025.</ref>
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Similarly, Padampa Sangye, in one of his famous pieces of advice given to the local people in Dingri, states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The six realms of beings are precious as fields for gathering two accumulations.
Hold a loving mind and compassion, O Dingri people.<ref>ཚོགས་གཉིས་ཡུལ་དུ་རིགས་དྲུག་སེམས་ཅན་གཅེས། །བྱམས་སེམས་ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཟུངས་ཤིག་དིང་རི་བ། ། Padampa Sangye, ''Heart Advice Called The Stack of Lotus'' (''Thugs kyi zhal gdams pad+mo brtsegs pa''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod, 13:449, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Thugs_kyi_zhal_chems_pad_mo_brtsegs_pa#tab=null.</ref>
}}
The study and practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through other transmissions such as the Kālacakra (more specifically, the six branches of yogic practice associated with Kālacakra teachings) and through the three vajra accomplishment practice of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pel (ཨོ་རྒྱན་པ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1229–1309). These transmissions, along with the teachings and meditation techniques in the Nyingma, Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, Shangpa Kagyu, and Sakya schools, as well as the Severance and Pacification traditions, make up the "eight great chariots of practice" (''སྒྲུབ་བརྒྱུད་ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེ་བརྒྱད་'') and are considered to be the main practice lineages that formed during the Buddhist resurgence of the later diffusion period. It was through these traditions that the study and practice of bodhicitta, as an essential element of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, spread across Tibet.

== The Propagation of Bodhicitta Teachings in Tibet ==

=== The Nyingma School ===
As these Buddhist schools and their associated teachings and practices flourished from the eleventh century onward—having first developed in the eighth century—Tibet also witnessed the sustained spread of bodhicitta teachings. Among the Nyingma, we see the continuous transmission of bodhicitta study and practice both through the received ''kama'' tradition and the new ''terma'' revelations. While the rediscovered ''terma'' teachings focused primarily on ritual texts and meditation instructions that emphasized bodhicitta as a key practice, the ''kama'' tradition presented bodhicitta mainly as an ontological state representing ultimate reality. This was done through discourses on the ground nature, the path of pristine awareness, and the resultant state of the Buddha, all of which were presented as the nondual, innate, luminous nature of the mind.

The three inner tantras of the Nyingma—comprising Mahāyoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga—and the outer mind cycle, inner space cycle, and secret instruction cycle of the Atiyoga or Dzogchen teachings underscored the study and practice of bodhicitta as the innate nature of one’s mind. These tantric presentations were systematized and elaborated in the writings of leading Nyingma masters such as Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, mid-eleventh–early twelfth centuries), Longchenpa Drime Ozer (ཀློང་ཆེན་རབ་འབྱམས་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyel (མངའ་རིས་པཎ་ཆེན་པདྨ་དབང་རྒྱལ་, 1487–1542), Lochen Dharmaśrī (ལོ་ཆེན་དྷརྨ་ཤྲཱི་, 1654–1718), and Jigme Lingpa (འཇིགས་མེད་གླིང་པ་, 1739–1798). Rongzom and Longchenpa, for instance, carried out detailed discussions on bodhicitta in the context of the ultimate nature of the mind in Dzogchen thought, making them the greatest thinkers and masters of the Dzogchen system. In his treatise ''Entering the Way of the Mahāyāna'' (''ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་''), Rongzom discusses bodhicitta in detail and states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The base of all phenomena is included in the mind and appearances of the mind. The nature of the mind is awakening, thus it is called the mind of awakening.<ref>ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་རྩ་བ་ནི་སེམས་དང་སེམས་སྣང་བ་ཙམ་དུ་འདུས་ལ། སེམས་ཀྱི་རང་བཞིན་ཉིད་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཡིན་པས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་བྱའོ།། See Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po’i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:477.</ref>
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He also writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Here, bodhicitta is the cultivation of thought combining wisdom and compassion.<ref>དེ་ལ་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་ནི་འདིར་ཤེས་རབ་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་བསྡུས་པའི་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའོ།། Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po'i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:500.</ref>
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Rongzompa, Longchenpa, and Lochen Dharmaśrī also commented on ''The Heart of Secret Tantra'' (''Guhyagarbhatantra''), which highlights the concept of bodhicitta as the innate nature of reality. Rongzom starts his commentary on this tantra with the claim that "bodhicitta is the essence of Three Jewels."<ref>དཀོན་མཆོག་གསུམ་གྱི་རང་བཞིན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Rongzom Chozang, ''Rgyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:33.</ref> With great emphasis on the higher tantric practices, the Nyingma masters vigorously took up the study and practice of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and as the pristine nonconceptual self-awareness of such nature.

The Nyingma masters also covered the concept of bodhicitta as the altruistic intention to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Among them, Longchenpa, who is unrivaled among the Nyingma masters in the systematization and synthesis of the Nyingma teachings in general and the Dzogchen system in particular, was perhaps the first one to discuss the theory and practice of relative bodhicitta in detail. He did this in two of his major works: ''The Treasury of Wish-fulfilling Jewels'' (''ཡིད་བཞིན་མཛོད་'')<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Yid bzhin mdzod rtsa ba'', in Mdzod bdun (a 'dzom par ma) (A 'dzom chos sgar: Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul dpal yul rdzong a 'dzom chos sgar, 1999), 1:3–88, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD8_31FD92.</ref> and ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' (''སེམས་ཉིད་ངལ་གསོ་'').<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:25–113, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_BEDB7A. For an English translation, see Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''Finding Rest in the Nature of the Mind'', vol. 1 of ''The Trilogy of Rest'', by Longchenpa (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, 2017).</ref> Like Rongzompa's description of bodhicitta as the essence of the Three Jewels, Longchenpa claims bodhicitta to be the root of all Dharma in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having become properly accustomed to the immeasurable thoughts,
One must cultivate the two types of bodhicitta, the root of all Dharma.<ref>དེ་ལྟར་ཚད་མེད་ལེགས་པར་གོམས་པ་ཡིས། །ཆོས་ཀུན་རྩ་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་གཉིས་བསྒོམ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes poʼi shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:46–47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
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He also defines bodhicitta in the following manner:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=To cultivate the [bodhicitta] thought is to desire
To reach the perfect buddha for the sake of limitless beings.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་ཚད་མེད་འགྲོ་བའི་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་སངས་རྒྱས་ཐོབ་པར་འདོད་པ་སྟེ། །སྨོན་དང་འཇུག་པའི་རང་བཞིན་གཉིས་ཡིན་ནོ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
}}
Closely following Longchenpa's elaborate discussion of bodhicitta—its definition, types, procedures for taking bodhicitta vow, and precepts—in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' and its two-volume commentary entitled ''The Great Chariot'' (''ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེན་པོ་''),<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'i 'grel pa shing rta chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), vols. 20–21, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref> Ngari Paṇchen carries out a clear and elaborate discussion of bodhicitta and bodhisattva ethics in his ''Ascertaining Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་པ་གསུམ་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ་''),<ref>See Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyal, ''Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'', in Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'i rtsa ba dang mchan 'grel rig pa 'dzin pa'i 'jug ngogs (Bylakuppe: Snga 'gyur mtho slob mdo sngags rig pa'i 'byung gnas, 1996), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23221. For an English translation of the root text, see Khenpo Gyurme Samdrub and Sangye Khandro, trans., ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'', by Ngari Paṇchen Wangyal, with commentary by Dudjom Rinpoche (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2014).</ref> on which Lochen Dharmaśrī wrote a commentary.<ref>See Lochen Dharmaśrī, ''Sdom gsum rtsa ba dang de'i 'grel pa dpag bsam snye ma sogs'' (Gser rta rdzong: Gser thang bla rung lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, n.d.), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN4872.</ref> Dharmaśrī also wrote a detailed explanation of the eighteen root downfalls or transgressions associated with the bodhisattva vow according to ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''. Similarly, Jigme Lingpa deliberated on bodhicitta in ''The Treasury of Precious Qualities'' (''ཡོན་ཏན་མཛོད་'') and in his autocommentary.<ref>See Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod dga' ba'i char'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (A 'dzom par ma: 'Brug spa gror bskyar par btab pa, 1990–1999), 1:29–166, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW7477_19AE1E.</ref>

The master most famous for championing the promotion of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, however, was Patrul Orgyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo (དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་ཨོ་རྒྱན་འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་ཀྱི་དབང་པོ་, 1808–1887). This wandering teacher reportedly taught ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' over a hundred times. His love for and expertise in this text was so remarkable that he was considered an incarnation of the Indian master Śāntideva by his contemporaries. Patrul held regular teaching retreats during which he would expound upon the text and also carry out the cultivation of bodhicitta. In this manner, he left behind a rich tradition of teaching and practicing bodhicitta in general and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in particular. He also authored the famous inspirational work entitled ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''ཀུན་བཟང་བླ་མའི་ཞལ་ལུང་།''),<ref>See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Kun bzang bla ma'i zhal lung'', part 1 and 2 (Kathmandu: Rigpe Dorje Institute, 2024), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-1-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-1/; https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-2-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-2/.</ref> which contains persuasive stories and teachings on compassion and bodhicitta. In one of his prayers, ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (''རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་མཆོག་ཏུ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའི་སྨོན་ལམ།''), he remarks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood.<ref> ཡོད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་དེས་ཆོག་ཅིང་། །མེད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་ཐབས་ཆག་པ། །སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་པའི་ས་བོན་མ་ནོར་བ། །རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་བསྐྱེད་པར་ཤོག ། For the Tibetan text, see Patrul Rinpoche, ''Rnam dag byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i smon lam'' (Lotsawa House, 2010, rev. 2012 & 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/patrul-rinpoche/aspiration-generate-bodhichitta. The translation belongs to Karma Phuntsho.</ref>
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Patrul's inspiration and influence spread beyond his own Nyingma school, especially with regard to his deep understanding and unparalleled expertise in teaching and practicing bodhicitta according to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. In the true spirit of Rime ecumenism of which he was a leading advocate, he would teach this text to different audiences, using the commentaries and giving interpretations which were most appropriate to each group. He did not compose a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as did many other Tibetan masters, but he wrote a guide for putting the text into practice and a powerful outline that captures the content and layout of the entire text with exceptional clarity and cohesion. Patrul became an immensely respected doyen for the study and practice of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', so much so that almost everyone studying and teaching the text after him embraced his lineage and traced their line of transmission to him.

Patrul's students recorded the gems of his insight into ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the commentary they put together. Among the many students who received teachings from him on bodhicitta was Orgyen Tenzin Norbu (ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་ནོར་བུ་, 1841?–1900?), who received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' from Patrul many times and taught it some two hundred times. Both he and Patrul taught Kunzang Palden (ཀུན་བཟང་དཔལ་ལྡན་, 1862–1943), who recorded their instructions in the extensive commentary entitled ''The Nectar of Mañjuśrī's Speech''.<ref>Kunzang Pelden, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i tshig 'grel 'jam dbyangs bla ma'i zhal lung bdud rtsi'i thigs pa'', in Gsung 'bum kun bzang dpal ldan, vol. 1 (Lama Ngodru and Sherab Demy, 1982), 5–746, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23946_57D951. For a bilingual version of the text with English translation by Padmakara, see this site: https://bodhicitta.tsadra.org/index.php/Books/The_Nectar_of_Manjushri%27s_Speech/Sabche.</ref> Another student, Jigme Chöphel Zangpo (འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་དཔལ་བཟང་པོ་, nineteenth century), received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' nine times from Patrul and compiled the notes from him on the first three and the tenth chapters. Minyak Kunzang Sonam (མི་ཉག་ཀུན་བཟང་བསོད་ནམས་, 1823–1905), a scholar from the Geluk tradition, also received teachings on the text nine times from Patrul and composed an extensive commentary.<ref>See Minyak Kunzang Sonam, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel bshad rgyal sras rgya mtsho'i yon tan rin po che mi zad 'jo ba'i bum bzang'', in ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang'' (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990), 1–584, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW15659.</ref>

A student of Patrul who left a significant legacy for the Nyingma tradition was Ju Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (འཇུ་མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912), probably Tibet's greatest polymath. Mipham wrote on a wide range of subjects and left behind an astounding thirty-two volumes covering almost all sciences known to him. His writings on Buddhist philosophy and practice, which contain the Nyingma understanding of Buddhist topics, form the core curriculum for scholastic study and meditation practice in the Nyingma tradition today. ''The Ketaka Gem'' (''ནོར་བུ་ཀེ་ཏ་ཀ་''), his commentary on the ninth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', which he wrote after he received teachings on it from Patrul, is a good example of his philosophical writing.<ref>See Mipham Gyatso, ''Spyod 'jug sher 'grel ke ta ka'' (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4996.</ref> While the text triggered polemical exchanges between him and his opponents, today it is widely read among followers of the Nyingma school. Mipham wrote a great deal on relative and ultimate bodhicitta in a number of his works in the context of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, including a commentary on Mañjuśrīmitra's ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta''.<ref>Mipham Gyatso, ''Byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun gyi mchan 'grel de kho na nyid gsal ba'i sgron me'', in Mi pham rgya mtsho'i gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Gangs can rig gzhung dpe rnying myur skyobs lhan tshogs, 2007), 23:63-95. See also https://online.adarshah.org/index.html?kdb=mipam&sutra=MP203&page=13-3-1ahttps://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun.</ref> The legacies of Patrul and Mipham continued through the works of their students and followers, who vigorously promoted the study and practice of bodhicitta.

The Kham region of Tibet experienced a remarkable renaissance of the Nyingma tradition during the era of the great masters of Patrul and Mipham. This renaissance, which involved many eminent figures, saw a massive burst of new scholarship and ''terma'' revelation as well as the compilation, classification, and reproduction of existing Nyingma literature. Simultaneously, there was also a revitalization of Nyingma monasticism and the development of scholastic activity through the new culture of ''shedra'' exegetical seminaries, which became vibrant centers of scholarship. The literary and institutional legacies left by this renaissance changed the trajectory of the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school.

It was ultimately the Rime movement led by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (འཇམ་དབྱངས་མཁྱེན་བརྩེའི་དབང་པོ་, 1820–1892), Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (འཇམ་མགོན་ཀོང་སྤྲུལ་བློ་གྲོས་མཐའ་ཡས་, 1813–1899), Patrul Rinpoche, and Mipham that had a significant impact on wider Buddhist study and practice. This movement came into being primarily to counteract the sectarian disputes and violence that frequently occurred between Tibetan Buddhist schools. Historical examples of violent sectarian conflicts include clashes between the Sakyapas and Drigungpas (thirteenth–fourteenth centuries), Kagyupas and Gelukpas (seventeenth century), and Nyingma and Geluk schools (eighteenth century). Moreover, the Gelukpa school with the political support of the Gaden Phodrang government had been extending their influence since the fifteenth century, leading to widespread religious prejudice and proselytization. In addition, the Rime masters had reservations about Gelukpa scholasticism, which was codified in individual college textbooks and professed through the eristic study of formulaic argumentation. Mipham particularly expressed such concern about the rigidity, verbosity, and aridity of Gelukpa scholasticism, which was founded on sophistic logic.

To stem this scholastic trend and the doctrinal controversies arising from partisan interpretations, the Rime teachers promoted the reorientation of religious study toward the Indian original texts and an eclectic approach to studying the essential teachings of all Tibetan traditions regardless of one's religious affiliation. This led to a restructuring of scholarly curricula in the ''shedra'' exegetical colleges and fostered some degree of interdenominational learning and teaching by the beginning of the twentieth century. To this effect, Khenpo Zhenga, or Zhenphen Chökyi Nangwa (གཞན་ཕན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྣང་བ་, 1871–1927), an ecumenical abbot of the ''shedra'' in Dzongsar, compiled commentaries on thirteen great classic Indian treatises, including ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yoga'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', which discuss bodhicitta and the bodhisattva path in detail. His commentaries, which are based on the writings by the Indian masters, came to be widely used as the core curriculum in the rising ''shedra'' colleges affiliated with the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya schools.

The study and practice of bodhicitta were flourishing in the scholastic and meditation centers when the People’s Liberation Army swept across Tibet. This was followed by the tragic Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). These events no doubt disrupted the scholarly pursuit of bodhicitta and gave ample opportunities for its practitioners to put it into practice in the face of overwhelming challenges and hardship. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, like in most other Tibetan Buddhist schools, recovered and reached new heights in large centers such as Namdroling Monastery in India and Larung Gar and Yachen in Tibet. These institutions attracted unprecedented numbers of students from Tibet and around the world, all of whom came to pursue Buddhist education through modernized monastic college programs that typically lasted nine years and covered topics such as bodhicitta in comprehensive detail.

=== The Kadam School ===
The Kadam school, which is considered the earliest of the ''sarma'', or new, schools, came to be known as a leading promoter of teachings on bodhicitta. Atiśa Dīpaṃkara is said to have combined in his teachings and practice both the Profound View and Vast Conduct traditions—the two main transmissions of Mahāyāna teachings in general and bodhicitta in particular. He received these transmissions from numerous masters such as Dharmarakṣita, Bodhibhadra, Dharmakīrti, Maitrīyogi, and Nāropa, and passed them down to numerous students, including his three main students—Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, who founded Reting Monastery, Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. The Kadam tradition became formalized as a tradition of seven divinity-dharmas (''བཀའ་གདམས་ལྷ་ཆོས་བདུན་ལྡན་''), which include Śākyamuni, Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, and Acala as four deities and the corpuses of Vinaya, Sūtra, and Abhidharma as the three dharmas.

The founding fathers of Kadam were succeeded by many influential masters, chief among whom were the aforementioned "three Kadam brothers"—Potowa Rinchen Sal, Chengawa Tsultrim Bar, and Phuchungwa Shönu Gyaltsen. As the Kadam tradition evolved, it also saw the development of two distinct lines of practice, especially in terms of the content and style of its teachings. Firstly, the Kadam tradition became a champion of the Lamrim, or stages of path, tradition. The Lamrim tradition revolved around Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', which covered the paths for persons of inferior, middling, and superior capacities. This was supplemented by the six treatises of Kadam (''བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་''), which they adopted as their core scriptural sources. They included Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'', Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''Compendium of Training'', Āryaśūra's ''Garland of Birth Stories'' (''Jātakamāla''),<ref>Āryaśūra, ''Jātakamāla'', in Derge Tengyur D4150, vol. 168, skyes rab, hu, 1b1-135a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4150.</ref> and ''The Collection of Aphorisms'' (''Udānavarga''),<ref>''Udānavarga'' (''Ched du brjod pa'i tshoms''), in Derge Kangyur D326, vol. 72, mdo sde, sa 209a1–253a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0326.</ref> attributed to the historical Buddha. These texts became the main treatises for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Kadam tradition.

Among the early Tibetan ''lamrim'' texts were Potowa's ''Blue Booklet'' (བེའུ་བུམ་སྔོན་མོ།), works by Gönpawa Wangchuk Gyaltsen (དགོན་པ་བ་དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1016–1082) that drew directly from Atiśa's teachings, and texts by Ngok Lekpai Sherap that were based on the teachings of Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung. Stressing the importance of bodhicitta, Potowa, as quoted by Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361), states in ''The Blue Booklet'',
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Knowing them to be just like oneself,
Treat everyone with love and compassion.
By doing so, if one upholds bodhicitta,
Therein lies each and every dharma.<ref>བདག་ཅི་འདྲ་བ་དེ་འདྲར་ཤེས་པས། །ཀུན་ལ་བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་འཇུག་བྱ། །དེས་བསྐྱེད་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དང་ལྡན་ན། །དེ་ལ་ཆོས་རྣམས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀུན་གནས། ། Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, ''Bka' gdams kyi man ngag be'u bum sngon mo'i rtsa 'grel (Lhasa, Sertsu Nangten Penying Tsholdu Chokdrikhang, 2016), 24, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG25234.</ref>
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Potowa also composed ''The Teaching in Similes'' (དཔེ་ཆོས།), which contains similes, sayings, and stories from folk culture employed to illustrate the points related to the spiritual path. Around the same time, a set of literary compositions on the spiritual path closely related to the ''lamrim'' called ''tenrim'' (བསྟན་རིམ་), or stages of the doctrine, developed. ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Doctrine'' (བསྟན་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ།) by Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne (གྲོ་ལུང་པ་བློ་གྲོས་འབྱུང་གནས་, eleventh century) is perhaps the earliest one.<ref>See Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne, ''Bstan rim chen mo'' (Delhi: Norbu Kharphigsi Publications, 2014), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG24221.</ref> These books, in contrast to works in the ''lamrim'' genre which lay out the path for the persons of three capacities, discuss the different teachings in the Buddhist system, taking an inclusive and cohesive approach in order to reconcile the diverse teachings. Some scholars understood the terms ''lamrim'' and ''tenrim'' to be synonyms, but others differentiated the two and considered ''tenrim'' to refer to public discourses and ''lamrim'' to refer to personalized private instructions.

Whatever the case, the approach of seeing all teachings as noncontradictory, understanding all scriptures as pith instructions, fathoming the intent of the Buddha easily, and absolving evil actions spontaneously are seen as the four special qualities of the Kadam tradition. With such an open and inclusive approach, the Kadam master generally embraced all Buddhist teachings. Yet, this did not entail a monotonous and homogenous system. Based on their specializations, the adherents of the Kadam school became divided into the tradition of scriptures (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་པ་) associated with Potowa and the tradition of oral and didactic pith instructions (བཀའ་གདམས་མན་ངག་པ་) associated with Chengawa, the latter further divided by some into essential instructions and oral instructions. In the cases of both the scriptural and instructional traditions, there were numerous other methods, styles, and techniques for presenting the teachings. Potowa favored approaching the teachings through mindfulness of the Buddha, Puchungwa through dependent origination, and Chengawa through the four noble truths. Within a couple generations of its diffusion, the Lamrim tradition of the Kadam school generated numerous commentaries and instructional texts while developing diverse approaches and styles for practicing the ''lamrim'' teachings.

The second most important component of Kadam study and practice was the tradition of Mind Training, or Lojong. Atiśa received various texts and techniques for mind training from his Indian teachers and passed them on to his main disciples, who in turn passed them on to their disciples. The pith instructions for mind training were mostly transmitted as secret teachings (ལྐོག་ཆོས་) in private sessions. Potowa passed down the ''lojong'' transmissions to Sharawa Yönten Drak (ཤ་ར་ཡོན་ཏན་གྲགས་, 1070–1141), whose disciple Tumtön Lodrö Drak (གཏུམ་སྟོན་བློ་གྲོས་གྲགས་, ca. 1106–1166) founded the famous Kadam center of Narthang in 1153, and to Langri Thangpa (གླང་རི་ཐང་པ་, 1054–1123), who composed ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' (''བློ་སྦྱོང་ཚིག་བརྒྱད་མ་'').<ref>See Langri Thangpa, ''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'', in Blo sbyong nyer mkho phyogs bsgrigs, ed. Ngag dbang sbyin pa and Cha ris skal bzang thogs med (Kan su: Kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 172–73, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW25275_54767F.</ref> Sharawa passed the instructions on to Chekawa Yeshe Dorje (འཆད་ཁ་བ་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1101–1175), who established Cheka Monastery and composed the famous ''Seven-Point Mind Training'' (''བློ་སྦྱོང་དོན་བདུམ་མ་'').<ref>See Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, ''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'i rtsa tshig sogs'', Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1NLM668.</ref> The transmission of ''lojong'' from Chekawa branched into northern and southern traditions and spread widely, with the cultivation of ultimate and relative bodhicitta as its core.

As the Kadam tradition evolved with its wealth of ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' teachings, its main historical records, teachings, and practices were compiled in ''The Book of Kadam'' (''བཀའ་གདམས་གླེགས་བམ་བཏུས་པའི་ཆོས་སྐོར་'').<ref>See Thupten Jinpa, ed., ''Bka' gdams glegs bam las btus pa'i chos skor'' (Delhi: Bod gyi gtsug lag zhib dpyod khang, 2005), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12514. For an English translation, see Thubten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008).</ref> With ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' by Atiśa at its core, the book contains sections called "Father Teachings," which are composed of questions and answers between Atiśa and Dromtönpa, and "Son Teachings," made up of questions and answers between Atiśa and Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. In the chapter discussing how all problems lie in the sole point of self-attachment—an important topic of meditation in the Lojong tradition—Atiśa asks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text="In that case, do you understand the mind's true mode of being?"

"Yes, I do," replied Drom.

Atiśa: "So what need is there of desires for this mind; cultivate contentment. Even though you perceive many sentient beings, all of them are your fathers and mothers who have taken joy in your overcoming of misfortune and [attainment] of good fortune. They have cleaned your runny nose with their mouths, your excrement with their hands, have nurtured you with kingdoms and with gifts, and some, despite having been abandoned [by us], have cared for us again. It is due to the kindness of the teacher that positive qualities are revealed. In general, it is the teacher who has done you the great kindness of granting you your ultimate aim. And it is your parents who are the source of great kindness granting you joy and happiness in this life. You should therefore recognize their kindness and repay their kindness.

"For this, serve the teacher through respectful veneration and meditative practice, and toward your parents, in order to repay their kindness, cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable joy when they are happy, and immeasurable equanimity that is free of discriminating thoughts of near and distant. For the benefit of all—all your mothers—strive as much as possible to attain buddhahood and, discarding lingering doubts, cherish your persistence in meditative practice. Abandoning all obstacles such as sloth, mental dullness, and laziness, endeavor with joyful perseverance.

"Drom, although one speaks of "recognizing the kindness of others and repaying it," it all seems to pertain to the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, such as loving-kindness and compassion; the stabilization of the awakening mind; its enhancement from high to ever higher levels; and the definite steering of one's parents with the paddles of [the two awakening minds,] aspirational and engaging."<ref>Thunten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 125–26.</ref>
}}
These passages and the many texts and teachings in the Lamrim and Lojong traditions of the Kadam school sufficiently demonstrate how bodhicitta forms the bedrock of the Kadam tradition and how the school came to champion its propagation. We also see the gradual development of the structures and procedures for practice, such as the seven instructions of cause and effect.

In addition to its strong practical orientation, the theoretical and philosophical study of bodhicitta also flourished within the Kadam school. This took place mainly through the scholastic education at Sangpu Neutok, the monastic college which was founded by Ngok Lekpai Sherab in 1072 and which rose to be a prominent Kadam center of learning some fifty years after its founding. At its peak, Sangpu Neutok was the most well-known center for scholastic education in Tibet, with alumni that included the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (དུས་གསུམ་མཁྱེན་པ་, 1110–1193), Longchenpa Drime Özer (ཀློང་ཆེན་པ་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (ཙོང་ཁ་པ་བློ་བཟང་གྲགས་པ་, 1357–1419), and Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (རོང་སྟོན་ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་རིག་, 1367–1449), who went to Sangpu for debate sessions. Some forty-five great masters such as Ngok Loden Sherab (རྔོག་བློ་ལྡན་ཤེས་རབ་, 1059–1109), Chapa Chökyi Senge (ཕྱ་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སེང་གེ་, 1109–1169), Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo (ཕག་མོ་གྲུ་པ་རྡོ་རྗེ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1110–1170), Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), Patsab Nyima Drakpa (པ་ཚབ་ཉི་མ་གྲགས་པ་, twelfth century) worked at Sangpu, making it a wonderful enclave of scholarship. Bodhicitta was rigorously studied through lectures, debates, and writing on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', and many other texts.

Another Kadam center where both the theoretical study and practical application of the teachings flourished and where a combination of both the tradition of scriptures and oral instructions thrived was Narthang, located in the Tsang region. Narthang produced great scholars such as Chim Namkha Drak (མཆིམས་ནམ་མཁའ་གྲགས་, 1210–1285), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་, 1219–1299), and Chomden Rikpai Raldri (བཅོམ་ལྡན་རིག་པའི་རལ་གྲི་, 1297–1305), who wrote commentaries on texts discussing bodhicitta and also composed practice manuals for its cultivation. Scholarship on bodhicitta flourished in the Kadam tradition. Some two dozen works, including full commentaries and short treatises, were written on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' alone by authors including Gyamar Jangchub Drak (རྒྱ་དམར་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་གྲགས་, eleventh–twelfth century), Chapa Chökyi Senge, Tsangnakpa Tsöndru Senge (གཙང་ནག་པ་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེང་གེ་, twelfth century), Drotön Dutsi Drak (གྲོ་སྟོན་བདུད་རྩི་གྲགས་, 1153–1232), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, Lodöe Tsungme (བློ་གྲོས་མཚུངས་མེད་, thirteenth century), and Kyitön Drakpa Gyaltsen (སྐྱི་སྟོན་གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, thirteenth century).

An outstanding Kadam luminary of his time was Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཐོགས་མེད་བཟང་པོ་, 1295–1369) of Ngulchu, particularly in terms of teaching and practicing bodhicitta. After studying in Sakya, Bodong, and Shalu Monasteries, Tokme Zangpo composed commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>See, for example, Gyalse Tokme Zangpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel pa legs bshad rgya mtsho'' (Them bu: Kun bzang stobs rgyas, 1975), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12289.</ref> and ''The Seven-Point Mind Training'',<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Commentary on the Seven Points of Mind Training'', by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (Lotsawa House, 2018), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/gyalse-thogme-zangpo/commentary-on-seven-points-mind-training.</ref> but his most significant contribution was ''The Thirty-Seven Bodhisattva Practices'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma''),<ref>See Tokme Zangpo, ''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'' (Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1988), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN15679.</ref> which today ranks among the most popular and influential texts for the study and practice of the path of the bodhisattva. Through these centers and masters, the study and practice of bodhicitta spread widely among the followers of the Kadam school.

The old Kadam tradition gradually declined in the fourteenth century but found a new manifestation in the new Gandenpa school of Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa. An influential monk, literary star, and master meditator, Tsongkhapa gave fresh life to the Kadam school but also departed from some of its old philosophical positions. He composed ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment'' (''ལམ་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ་''),<ref>Tsongkhapa, ''Lam rim chen mo'', in Gsung 'bum tsong kha pa (Zhol) (New Delhi: Mongolian Lama Guru Deva, 1978–1979), 13:39–1084, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW635_093BB6.</ref> a medium-length work on the ''lamrim'' (''ལམ་རིམ་འབྲིང་པོ་''), and a condensed work on the ''lamrim'' called ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'' (''ལམ་གཙོ་རྣམ་གསུམ་'').<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'', by Je Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (Lotsawa House, 2006, rev. 2012), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/bo/tibetan-masters/tsongkhapa/three-principal-aspects.</ref> He also composed works on ''lojong'', presenting a synthesized and structured theory as well as procedures for practice. By then, the old Kadam school declined as its teachings were incorporated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly the new Geluk school, which emerged as a reformed version of the Kadam school to carry on its legacies.

Toward the end of Tsongkhapa's life, the main seat of Ganden Monastery was established, followed soon by the founding of Sera and Drepung. These large monastic centers housed thousands of monks and carried out the rigorous study of bodhicitta in the context of their specific college curriculum (''ཡིག་ཆ་''). The authors of the ''yigcha'' such as Sonam Drakpa (བསོད་ནམས་གྲགས་པ་, 1478–1554), Jamyang Zhepa (འཇམ་དབྱངས་བཞད་པ་, 1648–1721), and Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (རྗེ་བཙུན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1469–1544) presented the definition, divisions, and benefits of bodhicitta during their deliberations on various Buddhist philosophical and moral topics. In fact, bodhicitta is the first of the seventy topics they studied as part of their long course on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. However, these monasteries did not include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' or ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' in their curriculum and study of these texts was carried out separately outside of the monastic curriculum.

Besides the authors of the curriculum, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the new Geluk school was also promoted by the successive Dalai Lamas, Paṇchen Lamas, and Ganden Tripas, as well as by the abbots and other geshes of the three main seats (Ganden, Sera, and Drepung) and the two tantric colleges. The First Dalai Lama, Gedun Drup (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་, 1391–1474), and the First Paṇchen Lama, Lobzang Chökyi Gyaltsen (བློ་བཟང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1570–1662), both wrote on ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' practices. Other inspirational Geluk figures such as Changkya Rolpai Dorje (ལྕང་སྐྱ་རོལ་པའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1717–1786) and Könchok Tenpai Drönme (དཀོན་མཆོག་བསྟན་པའི་སྒྲོན་མེ་, 1762–1823) wrote specific works on the cultivation of bodhicitta. Könchok Tenpai Drönme, for example, presents instructions on how to first cultivate relative bodhicitta, then ultimate bodhicitta, and finally how the two work together. In his instructions for practicing the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, he pretends to be in a debate with selfishness, which he refutes using different arguments.

The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Geluk school, like all other traditions in Tibet, went through tumultuous changes beginning in the middle of the twentieth century with the arrival of the People's Liberation Army and continuing through the Cultural Revolution. For over three decades, the study of bodhicitta in the Geluk school went through its darkest chapter, though many masters did excel in the practice of bodhicitta in the face of severe atrocities.

The bodhicitta teachings were soon revived in India through the establishment of monastic centers for education and practice by Tibetans who had fled Tibet following the upheavals of the 1960s and 70s. These efforts were crowned by the enthusiasm and commitment of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as a global paragon of wisdom and compassion. With dozens of books in multiple languages and public sermons attended by tens of thousands of people, he and his students took the teachings of bodhicitta to an unprecedented level by spreading the teachings across the globe. At the same time, the Geluk tradition also actively adopted the transmission of bodhicitta teachings that were passed down from Patrul Rinpoche. These came via two main lines: through Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen (ཁུ་ནུ་བླ་མ་བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1894?–1977) to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, and through Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823–1905), who wrote an extensive commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' based on Patrul's teachings.

=== The Kagyu School ===
The teachings on bodhicitta coming from the Kadam school were also passed down through the Marpa Kagyu school. The focus of Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012–1097) and his disciple Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040–1123) remained on the esoteric tantric teachings that Marpa brought from India, having received them from teachers such as Nāropa and Maitrīpa. However, Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (སྒམ་པོ་པ་བསོད་ནམས་རིན་ཆེན་, 1079–1153), the third founding father of the Kagyu tradition from the Dakpo region of Tibet, combined the esoteric tantric teachings he received from Milarepa with the Kadam teachings he had received before becoming Milarepa's disciple.<ref>The school later took its new name Dakpo Kagyu after him.</ref> Thus, we see an effective pairing of the relative bodhicitta teachings from the Kadam tradition with the teachings on ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric texts and ''mahāmudrā'' transmission.

This synthesis by Gampopa is best seen in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (''དམ་ཆོས་ཡིད་བཞིན་ནོར་བུ་ཐར་པ་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་རྒྱན་''), which condenses the entire path to buddhahood into six topics, which he puts in the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The buddha-nature is the cause,
Precious and supreme human body, the support,
The virtuous master is the agent,
And his instructions, the expedient technique.
The result is the body of the perfect Buddha,
Who engages in actions for the world with no thought.<ref>རྒྱུ་ནི་བདེ་གཤེགས་སྙིང་པོ་སྟེ། །རྟེན་ནི་མི་ལུས་རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག །རྐྱེན་ནི་དགེ་བའི་བཤེས་གཉེན་ཡིན། །ཐབས་ནི་དེ་ཡི་གདམས་ངག་སྟེ། །འབྲས་བུ་རྫོགས་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྐུ། །ཕྲིན་ལས་རྟོག་མེད་འགྲོ་དོན་མཛད། ། Gampopa Sonam Rinchen, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'' (Thimphu: KMT, 2005), 3.</ref>
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Gampopa discusses both relative and ultimate bodhicitta in some detail in this work, stating concisely that the objects of relative bodhicitta are the state of enlightenment and sentient beings, and that ultimate bodhicitta is the realization of emptiness endowed with compassion that is clear, unperturbed, and free from mental elaborations.<ref>Gampopa, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'', 133 and 137.</ref> He then presents the procedures to obtain the bodhisattva vow, the precepts to follow, the definition and types of bodhicitta, and a detailed treatment of the six perfections as applied bodhicitta. This work would remain a core text for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Dakpo Kagyu tradition.

The four chief disciples of Gampopa started the four Kagyu schools and spread the teachings on bodhicitta. They include the aforementioned Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, who founded the Pakdru Kagyu; Barompa Darma Wangchuk (འབའ་རོམ་པ་དར་མ་དབང་ཕྱུག་, 1127–1199/1200), who established the Barom Kagyu; the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, who established the Karma Kagyu; and Zhang Yudrakpa (ཞང་གཡུ་བྲག་པ་, 1123–1193), who established the Tselpa Kagyu. Pakmodrupa is said to have viewed himself as a servant of all sentient beings and to have lived a life committed to strict morality and service to others. He wrote several works on bodhicitta, including a commentary on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows''<ref>Phakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, ''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa bzhugs pa'i dbu phyogs'', in Gsung 'bum phag mo gru pa rdo rje rgyal po (bris ma), (ga), 27–48, Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG15061_A5D6A7.</ref> and a treatise entitled ''Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva'', not to be confused with Śāntideva's work, although they have the same title in Tibetan. In another text called ''The Great Pearl Garland'' (''སེམས་བསྐྱེད་མུ་ཏིག་ཕྲེང་ཆེན་''), he wrote in praise of bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Other intentions and precepts are like well-cooked food but thoughts and precepts concerning bodhicitta are like the celestial cake with a hundred tastes. The mass of other merits is like a ruler from a castle, while bodhicitta is like the universal monarch ruling over all gods and men. The merit accrued from other virtues is like the light of a firefly, while the merit of bodhicitta is like the blazing disc of the sun.<ref>Pakmodrupa, ''Sems bskyed mu tig phreng chen'', in Gsung 'bum rdo rje rgyal po (N.p: N.p, 1998), 1:571–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23860_764630.</ref>
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Pakmodrupa's eight chief disciples took the teachings further by founding eight subschools of the Pakdru Kagyu. Among them are figures such as Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (འཇིག་རྟེན་མགོན་པོ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1143–1217), who founded the Drikung Kagyu, Lingrepa Pema Dorje (གླིང་རས་པ་པདྨ་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1128–1188), whose disciple Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (གཙང་པ་རྒྱ་རས་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1161–1211) founded the Drukpa Kagyu, and Taklungtangpa Tashi Pal (སྟག་ལུང་ཐང་པ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་དཔལ་, 1142–1209/1210). Jikten Gönpo established Drikung Thil, had a large following, and also wrote many texts on the cultivation of bodhicitta. ''The Experiential Hymns on the Fivefold Mahāmudrā'' (''ཕྱག་རྒྱ་ཆེན་པོ་ལྔ་ལྡན་གྱི་རྟོགས་པའི་མགུར་'') is perhaps the most well-known work. Only five verses, it starts with the following:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If the steed of love and compassion
Does not run for the benefit of others,
It will not be rewarded in the assembly of gods and humans.
Attend, therefore, to the preliminaries.<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེའི་རྟ་ཕོ་ལ། །གཞན་ཕན་གི་དཀྱུས་ཐོག་མ་བཅད་ན། །ཁྲོམ་ལྷ་མིའི་འོར་ཆེ་མི་འབྱུང་བས། །སེམས་སྔོན་འགྲོ་འདི་ལ་ནན་ཏན་མཛོད།།. See Karma Phuntsho, trans., ''Jikten Sumgön's Fivefold Path of Mahāmudrā'' (''Phyag rgya chen po lnga ldan rtogs pa'i mgur''), Buddha-Nature: A Tsadra Foundation Project, recent essays, posted October 2021, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Recent_Essays/Post-50.</ref>
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Like Jikten Gönpo, Tsangpa Gyare, the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu, became a highly influential Kagyu master and spread the teachings on bodhicitta widely. He is said to have sent many waves of students across the Himalayas so that the Drukpa Kagyu teachings could spread across vast distances—as far as a vulture can fly in eighteen days. It has been said in a highly exaggerated claim that half of humanity are followers of the Drukpa Kagyu tradition, half of them paupers, and half of the paupers accomplished saints. The upper Drukpas, went another panegyrical claim, are as many as stars in the sky, the lower Drukpas are as many as the particles of dust on the earth, and the middle Drukpa tradition has 2500 leading hierarchs who are entitled to parasols over their head. No doubt, the teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread widely through the works of Tsangpa Gyare and his followers. Tsangpa Gyare remarked in one of his pieces of advice:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If bodhicitta is not cultivated, all meritorious activities, like an offering of flour to demons will throw one to the currents of worldly concerns.<ref>བྱང་སེམས་རྒྱུད་ལ་མ་སྐྱེས་ན། །བསོད་ནམས་བདུད་ཀྱི་ཕྱེ་གཏོར་འདིས། །ཆོས་བརྒྱད་ཆུ་ལ་བསྐུར་ཉེན་གདའ། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''<i>'</i>Gro mgon rin po che's gsung mgur gyi rim pa'', in 'Gro ba’i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23782_A9B6DF.</ref>
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"If one had compassion like a shepherd," he said, "one would care for both the good and bad."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེ་ལུག་རྫི་འདྲ་ན་བཟང་ངན་མེད་པར་བསྐྱང་སྟེ་མཆི། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''Tsogs chos mno ‘khor ma che ba'', in 'Gro ba'i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 9b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN2232_A2AF3F.</ref>

A leading disciple of Gampopa was Dusum Khyenpa, who established a lineage that became highly influential in Tibetan religion and politics. He was later recognized as the First Karmapa. Dusum Khyenpa founded Tsurphu Monastery in Tibet and had a great following. He taught that Dharma is about benefiting sentient beings and emphasized the importance of loving-kindness and compassion as part of the Mahāyāna path. But it was his successors who excelled in the scholarship on bodhicitta theory and practice. The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (ཀརྨ་པཀྵི་, 1204–1283), mentioned bodhicitta in his writings, but Rangjung Dorje (རང་བྱུང་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1284–1339 ), the Third Karmapa, wrote many important works on ultimate bodhicitta. These included books on the perfection of wisdom, which covered the empty aspect of ultimate bodhicitta, and books on buddha-nature, which covered the luminous aspect of ultimate bodhicitta.

Among the seventeen Karmapas who have become heads of the Kamtsang Kagyu school so far, the Eighth Karmapa, Mikyö Dorje, wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' in which he discusses bodhicitta. He also composed many other short manuals and instructions for bodhicitta practice such as ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang sems kyi khrid'', In Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa: 2004), 19:383–98, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_5E5C5A.</ref> ''Cultivation of Bodhicitta in One Night'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang chub kyi sems sgom tshul zhag gcig ma'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:331–34, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_DE0419.</ref> and ''Instructions for Mind Training''.<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Blo sbyong gi khrid'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:281–96, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_C222BF.</ref> In ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'', he presents guidance on how to generate bodhicitta using a dialogue between Maitreya and Maitrīyogi as the main text. In it, he also gives instructions on how to combine the cultivation of bodhicitta with breathing. Mikyö Dorje also wrote the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka, Cittamātra, and Vajrayāna traditions.

Another major author on bodhicitta belonging to the Kamtshang Kagyu subschool was Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (དཔའ་བོ་གཙུག་ལག་ཕྲེང་བ་, 1504–1564), a historian and commentator on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Besides his commentary on this classical text on bodhicitta, he also authored liturgies for taking the bodhisattva vows for both relative and ultimate bodhicitta and instructions on how to turn both positive and negative life experiences into opportunities for mind training.

The sixteenth century saw another major Kagyu figure belonging to the Drukpa Kagyu subschool. Pema Karpo (པདྨ་དཀར་པོ་, 1527–1592), the Fourth Drukchen of the Drukpa Kagyu school, wrote commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>Pema Karpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'bru 'grel dbu ma'i lam gyi sgron ma'' (Nepal: Shree Gautam Buddha Vihara, 2017), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/a-lamp-for-the-middle-way/.</ref> and ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. He also composed a treatise on the three vows, the second chapter of which deals with the bodhisattva vow and precepts. He also wrote texts related to the lamrim stages of the path to enlightenment and many works on ''mahāmudrā'', which deal with the ultimate form of bodhicitta.

In the nineteenth century, a major Kagyu figure to champion all traditions of Tibetan Buddhist teachings, including the study and practice of bodhicitta, was Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (1813–1899). As a leading promoter of the Rime ecumenical movement in eastern Tibet alongside his teacher and colleague Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892), Kongtrul produced the five great treasuries, including The Treasury of Kagyu Tantras (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད་སྔགས་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Revealed Treasures (རིན་ཆེན་གཏེར་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Instructions (གདམས་ངག་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Knowledge (ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་ཁྱབ་མཛོད་), and The Treasury of Extensive Teachings (རྒྱ་ཆེན་བཀའ་མཛོད་). While the first three are mainly compilations of existing teachings, Kongtrul added many supplements to enrich the collections. In the Treasury of Instructions, he put together the rare and important meditation instructions of all major Tibetan Buddhist transmissions and also composed many instructions and liturgies himself. A good example of this is his composition of the liturgy to take the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka tradition as received via Śāntideva. The two last collections mainly consist of his own encyclopedic writings and include his commentary on Chekawa Yeshe Dorje's ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' and his ''Aspirational Prayer for Mind Training''.

The last great Kagyupa/Nyingmapa promoter of bodhicitta in India in the twentieth century was Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, although he was also more aligned to the Rime ecumenical tradition than a specific sect. Born in North India with deep knowledge of its languages and cultures, and trained in Tibet before Buddhism's decline there, Khunu Rinpoche was uniquely positioned to preserve and transmit bodhicitta teachings during Tibet's takeover by the People's Liberation Army and the subsequent refugee exodus. At such a critical moment, Khunu Rinpoche passed on the profound teachings on bodhicitta to his students, the most eminent among them being the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as the unparalleled paragon of bodhicitta study and practice in modern times. Khunu Rinpoche also composed his very deep and poetic treatise on bodhicitta entitled ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta''.<ref>See Khunu Lama, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, n.d), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ369499.</ref>

Around the same time, another prominent Kagyu master to promote bodhicitta through his writings was Gedun Rinchen (དགེ་འདུན་རིན་ཆེན་, 1926–1997), the sixty-ninth Je Khenpo, or Chief Abbot, of Bhutan. Gedun Rinchen wrote commentaries on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', notes on ''The Way of the Bodisattva'', and several short works on the cultivation of both relative and ultimate bodhicitta. He is perhaps the first Bhutanese author to also write extensively on topics related to bodhicitta, although several other Bhutanese would do so in the twenty-first century. Today, traditional scholarship on bodhicitta among the Kagyu school thrives with an unprecedented number of scholars and masters writing and teaching both in the Himalayan Buddhist areas and in the diaspora.

=== The Sakya School ===
The Sakya school was founded by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102) with the establishment of Sakya center in the Tsang region of Tibet in 1073. In subsequent generations, the school evolved to become renowned for their scholarship and their dedicated practice of the Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on the Path and Result in particular. This was also true with regard to their study and practice of bodhicitta. According to the tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (ས་ཆེན་ཀུན་དགའ་སྙིང་པོ་, 1092–1158), the son of Könchok Gyalpo and the first of the five eminent ancestors of Sakya, is said to have had a vision of Mañjuśrī in which he received the teachings known as ''Parting from the Four Attachments'' (''ཞེན་པ་བཞི་བྲལ་'').<ref>See Ngor pa dpon slob blo gter dbang po, ed., ''Zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Rgyud sde kun btus (glog klad par ma) (Kathmandu: Sachen International, Guru Lama, 2004), 23:727–30, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW27883_DDE525.</ref> The teaching went as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If you are attached to this life, you are not a true spiritual practitioner;
If you are attached to saṃsāra, you have no renunciation;
If you are attached to your own self-interest, you have no bodhicitta;
If there is grasping, you do not have the View.<ref>Rigpa Translations, trans., ''Instruction on Parting from the Four Attachments'', by Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (Lotsawa House, 2011), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/jetsun-drakpa-gyaltsen/parting-four-attachments.</ref>
}}
The third point on parting from the attachment to self-interest underscored the importance of the practice of bodhicitta and compassion in the Sakya spiritual practice. A generation after him, his son Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), who got trained at Sangpu Neutok under the illustrious scholar Chapa Chökyi Senge, carried on the scholarly tradition of Sakya and composed a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel pa'', in ''<i>'</i>Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung'', ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po (Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 68:20–209, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_A992FA.</ref> The younger son, Drakpa Gyaltsen (གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1147–1216), carried on the tradition and composed a summary of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum, reprinted from a set of Derge Parkhang woodblocks (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992-1993), 9:553–91, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_21D2B6.</ref> instructions on ''Parting from the Four Attachments'',<ref>See ''Rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan gyis mdzad pa'i zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Gdams ngag mdzod (Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1979–1981), 6:310–14, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20877_835B23.</ref> a manual for taking the refuge and bodhisattva vows,<ref>See ''Chos spyod rin chen phreng ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:511–46, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_BAE593.</ref> and an exegesis on ''The Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow''.<ref>See Sachen Kunga Nyingpo and Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa gsal bar ston pa shlo ka nyi shu pa'i rnam par bshad pa'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:547–604, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_4967BB.</ref>

The greatest scholar among the five sublime ancestors of Sakya, however, was Ngawang Kunga Gyaltsen, who is popularly known as Sakya Paṇḍita or Sakya Paṇchen (ས་སྐྱ་པཎྜི་ཏ་, 1182–1251). A scholar of exceptional caliber, Sakya Paṇḍita composed many original works, some of which discuss bodhicitta. These include ''Distinguishing the Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་གསུམ་རབ་དབྱེ་''),<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:1–96, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' (''ཐུབ་པའི་དགོངས་པ་རབ་ཏུ་གསལ་བ་''),<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:9–206, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> a liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow, and a collection of scriptural citations to substantiate the points related to bodhicitta.<ref>See ''Dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi cho ga'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:467–503, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_1F51EB and ''Byang chub kyi mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga'i lung sbyor'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:503–24, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_A6BF74.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita bestowed the bodhisattva vow according to the Middle Way tradition and followed this with teachings on ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' so that one's bodhicitta would not decrease but would increase. Yet, it was generally his critical and polemical discourses on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta that often attracted the greatest attention from scholars and readers. For instance, he argued that not all bodhisattva aspiration prayers would come true, for if they did, bodhisattvas would be constantly inflicted by the pain and suffering that they prayed would fall on them. However, he accepted the essential role that bodhicitta played in Buddhist soteriology. "If one mishandles the crux of bodhicitta, other dharma cannot make one fully enlightened,"<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་གནད་འཆུགས་ན། །ཆོས་གཞན་གྱིས་ནི་འཚང་མི་རྒྱ། ། ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:33, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> he argued. Furthermore, he writes,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If one has bodhicitta and skill in means,
Even if one indulges in the five sensory objects,
Such an act becomes an act of great virtue for a bodhisattva.
It is considered as sin by the hearers.<ref>འདོད་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་ལྔར་སྤྱོད་ཀྱང་། །ཐབས་མཁས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ལྡན་ན། །རྒྱལ་སྲས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ཆེན་ཡིན། །ཉན་ཐོས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་སྡིག་པར་གསུངས། ། See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref>
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In his ''Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' and the liturgy on the bodhisattva vow, he presents a brief historical account of the two main Mahāyāna traditions, a clear account of bodhicitta and its types, the ritual for receiving the bodhisattva vow, and the precepts that follow.<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita was succeeded by his nephew Chögyal Pakpa (ཆོས་རྒྱལ་འཕགས་པ་, 1235–1280), who followed his uncle to China and later became the court priest and tutor of Kubilai Khan. Chögyal Pakpa is said to have given the bodhicitta vow to large gatherings of 70,000 people during the Chumik convention in 1270 and to have also administered it to his Mongol disciples in the Yuan court.

The Sakya school, put in place by the five great masters, continued to grow through the works of many great figures on the Tibetan intellectual scene and the many monasteries and centers they founded. In the generation after Chögyal Pakpa, we see the rise of Butön Rinchen Drub (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་, 1290–1364), a Sakya scholar who became the head of Shalu Monastery and was also responsible for the compilation of the first Kangyur and Tengyur canons, today referred to as the Old Narthang Kangyur and Tengyur. Butön left behind a prodigious oeuvre that includes a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa byang chub kyi sems gsal bar byed pa zla ba'i 'od zer'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19:193–614, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_11394D.</ref> a summary of it,<ref>See ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19: 147–92, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_B2DED5.</ref> and a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''.<ref>''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rgya cher bshad pa lung gi snye ma'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy Of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 18:13–740, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_850C4C</ref> He also wrote one of the earliest and elaborate treatises on buddha-nature<ref>See, for example, ''Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 20:1–78, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_9E60DB.</ref> and numerous texts on Vajrayāna, covering ultimate bodhicitta.

An influential contemporary of Butön with a strong connection to the Sakya school was Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361). Initially associated with the Sakya school, Dölpopa undertook Kālacakra practice at Jomonang center, which eventually led him to his exposition of the philosophy of ''zhentong'' (''གཞན་སྟོང་''), or other emptiness. He wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rnam bshad mdo'i don bde blag tu rtogs pa'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon, 1990s?), 5:245–620, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_F64381.</ref> and original works such as ''The Mountain Dharma: Ocean of Definitive Meaning''<ref>See ''Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho zhes bya ba mthar thug thun mong ma yin pa'i man ngag'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 3:191–739, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_CC2A89.</ref> and ''The Fourth Council'',<ref>See ''Bka' bsdu bzhi pa'i don bstan rtsis chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 6:167–204, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_A37792.</ref> which elaborate an understanding of ultimate bodhicitta which is starkly different from the mainstream Sakya position. Dölpopa and his writings, which were carried on by the Jonang school, left behind a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist scholarship and practice.

In the fourteenth century, the Sakya school produced two outstanding scholars who both got trained at Sangpu Neutok. The first was Yaktön Sangye Pal (གཡག་སྟོན་སངས་རྒྱས་དཔལ་, 1350–1414), one of the six scholars known as the Six Ornaments of Tibet who wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Sher phyin mngon rtogs rgyan rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20485.</ref> but did not write any independent work on bodhicitta. The second scholar, Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (1367–1449), in contrast, wrote commentaries on major Indian treatises, including ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>Rongtön Sheja Kunrik, ''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rnam bshad tshig don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 3:3–774, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_96A5D5.</ref> and ''Introduction to the Middle Way''.<ref>''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don rnam nges'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 6:383–752, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_ACD85B.</ref> He also composed many short works on the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta, including a short text containing instructions on how to put ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into practice.<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug sgom rim rin chen rgyan phreng'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 1:508–10, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_876785.</ref>

Scholastic and polemical writings in the Sakya school reached unprecedented heights during the time of Rongtön's students, which included three of the most renowned scholars of their time—Taktsang Sherab Rinchen (སྟག་ཚང་ཤེས་རབ་རིན་ཆེན་, 1405–1477), Śākya Chokden (ཤཱཀྱ་མཆོག་ལྡན་, 1428–1507), and Gorampa Sönam Senge (གོ་རམས་པ་བསོད་ནམས་སེང་གེ་, 1429–1489). Taktsang Sherab Rinchen composed two works on the sciences and philosophical tenet systems and became a vocal critic of Tsongkhapa’s understanding of emptiness but did not write anything significant on bodhicitta. Śākya Chokden wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo dang mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel dang bcas pa'i lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don rgya mtsho'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 3:7–192, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_B4FF1A.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See ''Dbu ma 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don gnad kyi ṭī ka'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 5:291–486, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_D11306.</ref> and on Sakya Paṇḍita's ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'i le'u gsum pa rig 'dzin sdom pa'i skabs kyi 'bel gtam rnam par nges pa legs bshad gser gyi thur ma'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 7:7–244, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_E519EB.</ref> He also wrote a commentary on ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' by Langri Thangpa.<ref>Shākya Chokden, ''Blo sbyong tshig rkang brgyad pa'i rnam bshad don gsum rab tu gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 23:57–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_C4DA34.</ref> An independent thinker, Śākya Chokden introduced a new interpretation of buddha-nature, and his philosophical interpretation often differed from early Sakya masters. Because of this, his colleague Gorampa Sönam Senge, a sharp commentator and debater, became the main authority who established and carried on the Sakya philosophical tradition. Like his teacher Rongtön and his colleague Śākya Chokden, Gorampa wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i dka' ba'i gnas rnam par bshad pa yum don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 6:7–756, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_B6315B.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i dkyus kyi sa bcad pa dang gzhung so so'i dka' ba'i gnas la dpyad pa lta ba ngan sel'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 5:479–758, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_73D3D6.</ref> and also ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Sdom pa gsum gyi rab tu dbye ba'i rnam bshad rgyal ba'i gsung rab kyi dgongs pa gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 9:7–436, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_6EA702.</ref> Gorampa, Śākya Chokden, and Taktsang Sherab Rinchen would become known as Goshāktaksum, a trio of Sakya scholars who were among the harshest critics of Tsongkhapa and his Geluk school of thought.

Another prolific scholar around this time, though not directly related to Sakya, was Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal (བོ་དོང་པཎ་ཆེན་ཕྱོགས་ལས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་, 1376–1451). Chokle Namgyal left behind perhaps the largest collection of writings in Tibet, including commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Dpal de kho na nyid 'dus pa'i rgya mtsho chen po las phar phyin gyi dka' 'grel lung gi snye ma'', in Bo dong phyogs las rnam rgyal gyi gsung 'bum gsar rnyed skor, Par gzhi dang po (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 2:5–386, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD97485_3FDD00.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, Gsung 'bum phyogs las rnam rgyal (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1969–1981), vol. 17, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22103_5D3941.</ref> and an exegetical commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa rab tu gsal ba'', in 'Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung, ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po, Par gzhi dang po (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 73:221–560, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_6A3765.</ref> Scholarship on bodhicitta thrived with the rise of scholasticism from the fourteenth century. The theory of bodhicitta was discussed as the first of the seventy topics covered in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and the practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya tradition took place through the bodhisattva vow and through the instruction on ''Parting from the Four Attachments''. The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya school especially flourished and would culminate in the works of masters such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the Sakya figure who rose to be the leading advocate of the Rime ecumenical movement in the nineteenth century. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo bequeathed an enormous collection of writings that included many dozens of texts on bodhicitta. While he did not write commentaries on the main classical texts as other scholarly Sakya masters did, he composed many works concerning the practice of bodhicitta in the form of practical instructions, liturgies, and historical accounts.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings beyond Asia ==
Although some early cultural transmissions and interactions between Asia and the West occurred in ancient times, the proper transmission of Buddhism, particularly Mahāyāna teachings, to the West has taken place only since the early twentieth century. The general trend of globalization facilitated by the advancement in communication technology and the travel industry, political upheavals such as World War II and the Korean War, and the rise of communism in China, Vietnam, and Tibet all led to the migration of people from Mahāyāna countries in Asia to the West and to the spread of bodhicitta teachings. Western interest in Buddhist cultures was at first largely driven by cultural curiosity and academic interest, often motivated by a colonial agenda. However, this changed by the middle of the twentieth century with the significant growth of serious interest in Eastern spirituality, the introduction of Buddhist Studies in Western universities as part of religious and theological studies, and the rise of Dharma centers for practicing Buddhists.

The initial transmission of Mahāyāna teachings to the West began with the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning of the twentieth century. Figures such as Soyen Shaku (1860–1919) and Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966) brought Zen Buddhism and the Mahāyāna teachings from the Sino-Japanese tradition, while explorer-writers such as Evans Wentz (1878–1965) and Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969) introduced the West to Tibetan Buddhism. These were followed by a rising number of scholars in leading academic institutions, many of whom undertook sustained and in-depth study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the same time, numerous Asian Buddhist teachers from Tibet and East Asia started to establish Dharma centers, particularly in Europe and North America, where people with an interest in Buddhism took up their spiritual practice. Such a diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in general and teachings on bodhicitta in particular was further enhanced by the rising popularity of figures such as the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987).

One way to gauge the spread of the teachings on bodhicitta is to look at the transmission of the main classics on bodhicitta—namely, Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Compendium of Training''. Early translations of these two works, which gained much popularity in India soon after their composition in the eighth century, appeared in Tibetan and Chinese in the ninth and tenth centuries respectively. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' was initially translated into Tibetan by Kawa Paltsek in the eighth century and into Chinese by Tiān Xīzāi (d.1000) in 985 CE. The Tibetan translation went through subsequent revisions at least twice in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by Lotsāwa Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055) and Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) respectively. The text was then translated into Mongolian by Čosgi Odser (ཆོས་ཀྱི་འོད་ཟེར་, fl. 1305–1321) in 1305. ''The Compendium of Training'' was translated into Tibetan by Yeshe De (eighth century) and later revised by Ngok Loden Sherab. It was translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa in the first half of the eleventh century.

In the centuries after their composition, both of these texts appear to have spread quickly beyond North India to places such as Kashmir and Kathmandu. For example, the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project has found forty-one manuscripts related to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', including twelve palm-leaf manuscripts, and the earliest one (located in Kathmandu) dated to 1180 CE. The only existing Sanskrit manuscript of ''The Compendium of Training'', now housed in Cambridge University Library, was also acquired from Kathmandu.

Although these texts attracted much attention in India, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and other traditional Buddhist areas, their transmission to the West occurred only around the beginning of the twentieth century. The first publication of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the Western world took place in Russia in 1889 when Ivan P. Minayev reviewed and published the Sanskrit text using the manuscript brought by Brian Houghton Hodgson from Kathmandu.<ref>I. P. Minayev, "La doctrine du salut dans le Bouddhisme posterieur," ''Zapiski'', no. 4 (1889).</ref> Similarly, ''The Compendium of Training'' was first published through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902 by Cecil Bendall, who used the Sanskrit manuscript obtained by Daniel Wright in 1875 from Kathmandu.<ref>Cecil Bendall, ed., ''Çikshāsamuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhistic Teaching Compiled by Çāntideva Chiefly from Earlier Mahāyāna-Sūtras'' (St Pétersburg: Commissionaires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1902), xxiv.</ref> The first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into a European language was undertaken by Louis de la Vallée Poussin, who translated the text in stages from 1892 onward and completed it in 1907. This was followed by five different translations into French in the twentieth century. Lionel David Barnett produced the first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into English in 1909, although he only did an abridged version. The first complete English translation of the verses appears to have been carried out by Marion Matics.<ref>Marion Leonidas Matics, ''Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The Bodhicaryāvatāra of the Buddhist Poet Śāntideva'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970).</ref> Since then, there have been some seventeen different English translations of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', and writings on this text continue to grow. It is today found in over a dozen European languages. It was also translated into Japanese by Ekai Kawaguchi (1866–1945) and published in 1921, and translations can be found in many other Asian languages.

Śāntideva’s other main work, ''The Compendium of Training'', was edited and published for the first time in the West by Cecil Bendell in 1902. He also started the translation, but it was finished by W. H. D. Rouse and published in 1922. As regards the translation of ''The Compendium of Training'' into other languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930. Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered it into modern Japanese from the Chinese version. The latest and most popular translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' today is the one by the Padmakara Translation Group and that of ''The Compendium of Training'' is the one by Charles Goodman.

Through these academic and religious translations and numerous other writings on bodhicitta, the teachings and practice of bodhicitta have today spread widely in many continents. Yet, the biggest impetus for the promotion of bodhicitta across the world has come from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), an ardent promoter of bodhicitta doctrine and practice. Throughout the decades following the exodus of Tibetans into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lama has tirelessly taught and written about bodhicitta and spread the teachings to large global audiences. Interest in Tibetan Buddhism in general and the bodhicitta teachings has grown rapidly as these teachings, which were previously inaccessible to foreigners, have become easily available.

Moreover, the teachings on bodhicitta and the bodhisattva ideal continue to appeal to modern progressive sensibilities, leading to their adoption and application even beyond religious circles. With influential leaders such as the Dalai Lama promoting these ideas, the rich tradition of bodhicitta—the way of wisdom and compassion—continues to spread in different parts of the world in the twenty-first century in a sustained effort to curb materialism, individualism, egocentricity, aggression, and environmental degradation, which are rampant in the world. This web resource contains extensive materials on bodhicitta in one place, launching a new chapter in the history of bodhicitta teachings. It provides timely support to help students and practitioners easily enhance their knowledge, deepen their understanding, and strengthen their practice.
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Articles/History of Bodhicitta Teachings

2026-09-01T14:48:28Z

KPhuntsho:

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== The Origins of Bodhicitta ==
Tradition would have it that bodhicitta existed since time immemorial, as all buddhas must start their journey by becoming a bodhisattva and one can only do so by cultivating bodhicitta—the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. However, from a historical perspective, the term ''bodhicitta'' and the idea of taking all sentient beings to the state of full enlightenment only emerges with the rise of the Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE. There is no explicit mention of the term ''bodhicitta'' in the Buddhist canon preserved in the Pāli language, which most scholars consider to be the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures.

One can find in the Pāli canon, particularly in the section on past buddhas and the Jātaka tales, references to the historical Buddha generating the first thoughts to become a buddha in his former lifetimes. A good example is the ascetic Sumedha, one of the previous rebirths of the historical Buddha, taking the vow to seek perfect enlightenment for the first time in the presence of Buddha Dīpaṃkara, who confirms his success in the future through a prediction.<ref>See "Sumedha's Wish" and "The History of Buddha Dīpaṅkara" in ''Chronicles of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhavaṃsa'') under Minor Collections (''Khuddakanikāya''), at suttacentral.net, https://suttacentral.net/bv?view=normal&lang=en. Retrieved on May 5, 2025.</ref> Similarly, we also find the story of the Buddha as the brahmin Jotipāla, who takes the vow once again in the presence of Buddha Kāśyapa and receives a prediction from him that he will one day become a buddha. These stories, along with many others about the Buddha as a bodhisattva and his aim to attain perfect enlightenment, are considered by later Buddhist thinkers to exemplify bodhicitta. No doubt, these accounts in the early canonical works contributed to the development of the concept and practice of bodhicitta in later times.

It is notable, however, that the early Buddhist scriptures portray the commitment to seek the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as a privilege reserved for only a select few individuals of high capacity. They do not explicitly mention the wish to pursue enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, nor do they articulate the noble aim of leading all sentient beings to the state of perfect enlightenment. Rather, in these early teachings, the focus is on the pursuit of individual liberation. Although some exceptional beings become fully enlightened buddhas with great compassion for the world, the teachings do not highlight the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta. The compassionate intention to benefit the world becomes more explicit in later times.

The ''Mahāvastu'' (the "Great Event" or "Great Story"), a book from around the second century BCE belonging to the Lokottaravādin school, is perhaps one of the earliest texts to explicitly mention the term ''bodhicitta'' and to present both aspects of bodhicitta: the aim for perfect enlightenment and wish to do so out of compassion for sentient beings.<ref>Jeom-suk Park claims that this appearance of bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' is indeed the first appearance of the term. See Jeom-suk Park, "Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism," ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 51, no. 2 (March 2003): 139.</ref> The verses that mention bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' (MVU) read as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na dhyānahānir bhavate kadācit /
na bodhicittaṃ jahate kadācit // (MVU 2.382)<ref>See Emmanuel Fauré, ed., ''Mahāvastu-avādana'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 2.382, 2.392, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. The #2 here stands for part 2 of the ''Mahāvastu'' as it has been arranged on GRETIL.</ref>

Never is there any falling off in meditation, and never
does he abandon the thought of enlightenment.<ref>See J. J. Jones, trans., ''The Mahāvastu'' (London: Luzac, 1952), 2:344.</ref>
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na bodhicittaṃ vijahati so kadācit /
na khaṇḍaśīlo bhavati asaṃvṛto vā // (MVU 2.392)

Never does he give up the thought of enlightenment.
He never becomes corrupt of morals nor dissolute.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 2:351, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>
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The accounts of the previous lives of the historical Buddha and of Buddha Maitreya (the future Buddha) in the ''Mahāvastu'' chronicle how, for example, during the time of Buddha Suprabhāsa, the historical Buddha as the monk Abhiya and Maitreya as King Vairocana made the aspiration to reach the state of perfect enlightenment and did so out of compassion to benefit the world. Such an aspiration to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of the world gradually evolved into the concept of bodhicitta with the emergence of Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE.
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|quote-text=yasmiṃ samaye satvā bhavensuḥ alenā atrāṇā aśaraṇā aparāyaṇā utsadalolā utsadadoṣā utsadamohā akuśalān dharmā samādāya vartensuḥ yobhūyena ca apāyapratipūrakā bhavensu tasmiṃ kāle tasmiṃ samaye aham anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyehaṃ // taṃ bhaveyaṃ bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukaṃpāya mahato janakāyasyārthāya hitāya sukhāya devānāṃ ca manuṣyāṇāṃ ca // (MVU 1.61)<ref>Fauré, ''Mahāvastu'', 1.161, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>

When beings come to be without refuge, support, protection, shelter, and succour, when they become characterized by fickleness, malice, and folly, when they live in accordance with wrong standards of conduct and generally go to crowd the worlds of woe, then may I awake to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. May I do so for the benefit and welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world, for the sake of the multitude, for the good of devas and men.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 1:50.</ref>
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The earliest Mahāyāna texts to discuss bodhicitta are said to be ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'' (''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'')<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_aSTAdazasAhasrikA-prajJApAramitA55-82.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>’</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fols. 1b1–286a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0012.</ref> and ''The Verses that Summarize the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'').<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8. See Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, ''Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 1.5, 5.5-8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ratnaguNasaMcayagAthA.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See also, ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fols. 1b1-19b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0013.</ref> These texts date to around 100 BCE and both contain the term ''bodhicitta'' and promote the concept of seeking enlightenment out of compassion and love for sentient beings.<ref>See ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'', 16.5 (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fol. 10a and ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 16b.</ref> The term ''bodhicitta'' appears at the beginning of ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', when Subhūti, through the blessings of the Buddha, submits to the Buddha that a bodhisattva "should train to not have pride in having bodhicitta, for such mind is not mind, but mind is by nature luminous."<ref>འདི་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་དེས་ཀྱང་རློམ་སེམས་སུ་མི་བགྱིད་པ་དེ་ལྟར་བསླབ་པར་བགྱིའོ། །དེ་ཅིའི་སླད་དུ་ཞེ་ན། འདི་ལྟར་སེམས་དེ་ནི་སེམས་མ་མཆིས་པ་སྟེ། སེམས་རང་བཞིན་ནི་འོད་གསལ་བ་ལགས་སོ།། ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 3a.</ref>

[[File:Text sample 1 for history of bodhicitta.jpg|900px|class=w-100 h-auto my-4 border rounded|]]

Similarly, in another passage from this same text, which Gareth Sparham calls the "Origin-Passage,"<ref>Gareth Sparham, "Indian Altruism: A Study of the Terms ''bodhicitta'' and ''cittotpāda''," ''Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15, no. 2 (1992): 224–42.</ref> Subhūti advises Śāriputra that a bodhisattva should not think of an action as hardship because one cannot serve the multitude of sentient beings with such a thought.<ref>See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'', fol. 16b. See Edward Conze, T''he Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary'' (Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation, 1975), 93.</ref> Only with the feeling of joy and love toward sentient beings, as though they were one’s father, mother, brother, or sister, will one be able to work for countless sentient beings and cultivate the intention to take all of these beings out of suffering for all times, just as one wishes to take oneself out of suffering for all times.

What, then, could have led to the development of such a noble and high ideal as bodhicitta? Dorji Wangchuk, in his authoritative work on bodhicitta entitled ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study on the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'', speculates that the rise of the bodhicitta concept may have been "driven by a psychological need of the Buddhists to compensate for the loss of the historical Buddha."<ref>See Dorji Wangchuk, ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 89.</ref> After the Buddha’s passing, some of his followers may have sought a substitute for the historical Buddha beyond the corpus of teachings and the Saṅgha community, who, as custodians of the Vinaya discipline that the Buddha designated as his representative, were entrusted with preserving his legacy after his departure. This may have been more common among those who chose to follow a hermetic and reclusive life outside the monastic institutions or sought a different understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and an alternative spiritual approach to what the mainstream monastic establishment offered. The Mahāyāna system is said to have emerged as a result of such a tendency,<ref>See Paul Williams, ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'' (London: Routledge, 2009).</ref> and it is likely that the need for a present buddha figure was strong among such people. In order to have a buddha, one must have a bodhisattva who aspires to become a buddha, and for that one needs to have the resolve or motivation to become a buddha. Thus, the concept of bodhicitta.

Gombrich and Wangchuk also argue that the Buddhist scriptures present the ultimate truth as being eternal and unchanging.<ref>Wangchuk, ''Resolve'', 78. Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'' (London: Routledge, 2006), 121.</ref> Because this truth remains immanent and eternal, individuals who achieve such realization emerge periodically throughout history. This understanding opens the possibility for other persons to attain the same enlightenment that the historical Buddha achieved. Thus, we see the emergence of a plurality of buddhas in early Buddhist teachings, which present six and twenty-four past buddhas as well as future buddhas such as Maitreya. With the rise of Mahāyāna, the pantheon of buddhas increases, and not only are there numerous past and future buddhas, one sees the idea of numerous present buddhas dwelling in different buddha realms situated in the vast expanse of the new Mahāyāna cosmology. With numerous buddhas as examples, cultivating bodhicitta to achieve buddhahood becomes a central theme.

Bodhicitta, as some scholars have argued, was also an expansion and improvement on the concept of ''prathamacitta'', or the initial resolve made by the Buddha to seek perfect enlightenment. This resolve is also presented as ''praṇidhāna'' (Pāli: ''paṇidhāna''), or the earnest aspiration to attain enlightenment. It is also thought to be an enhanced elucidation of ''adhyāśaya'' (Pāli: ''ajjhāsaya''), or the noble intention to earnestly seek enlightenment or benefit others. Some scholars considered ''adhyāśaya'' to be an abbreviation of ''anuttarāyāṃ samyaksambodhau cittam utpādayati'', or the generation of the thought of the unsurpassed perfect buddhahood. Many early Mahāyāna sources also contain the term ''cittotpāda''—the cultivation of the mind—which refers to the generation of the intention to seek perfect enlightenment. In later works, the terms ''bodhicitta'', ''cittotpāda'', and ''bodhicittotpāda'' came to be used synonymously, although they may have had different referents and connotations in the early period of Mahāyāna.

Whatever the main basis of the technical term ''bodhicitta'', the topic of bodhicitta was repeated and further elaborated in other sūtras belonging to the perfection of wisdom class and numerous other Mahāyāna sūtras that emerged in the subsequent centuries. The main sūtras containing the full-blown teachings on bodhicitta include ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra'') in the ''Avataṃsaka'' collection, ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''), ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' (''Sāgaramatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), ''The Questions of Ugraḥ Sūtra'' (''Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra''), ''The Questions of Vīradatta'' (''Vīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'' (''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''), and ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'' (''Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra''), to mention a few. In these sūtras, we see the development of the concept of bodhicitta along with the notions of compassion and wisdom. In many sources, such as ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' and ''The Basket of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisatvapiṭaka''), bodhicitta also refers to the ultimate nature of things or the luminous nature of the mind, which Wangchuk categorizes as ontological bodhicitta.

Besides the numerous canonical Mahāyāna sūtras that discuss and promote bodhicitta, we also see the rise of commentarial literature which deals with the theory and practice of bodhicitta. The foremost champion of the Mahāyāna teachings that included the concept of bodhicitta was Nāgārjuna, who lived roughly between 150 to 250 CE. In his ''Praise of the Diamond Mind'' (''Cittavajrastava'') and ''Praise of Dharmadhātu'' (''Dharmadhātustava''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Cittavajrastava'' (''Sems kyi rdo rje bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1121, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 69b4–70a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1121, and ''Dharmadhātustava'' (''Chos kyi dbyings su bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1118, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 1.63b5–67b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1118.</ref> Nāgārjuna uses the term ''bodhicitta'' to refer to the nature of mind and ultimate reality. However, in ''The Commentary on Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna, he presents bodhicitta as "the thought motivated by great compassion."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེས་བརླན་པའི་སེམས་ཀྱིས་ནི། །འབད་པས་བསྒོམ་པར་བྱ་བ་ཡིན། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittavivaraṇa'' (''Byang chub sems kyi 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1800, rgyud, vol. 35, ngi, fol. 38b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1800.</ref> This, in later times, came to be called ''relative bodhicitta''. In his ''Compendium of Sūtras'' (''Sūtrasamuccaya''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' (''Mdo kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3934, dbu ma, vol. 110, ki, fols. 141b1–215a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3934.</ref> Nāgārjuna presents numerous citations from sūtras to illustrate the rarity and importance of many aspects of Mahāyāna practice, including the supreme thought of awakening, or bodhicitta. Another text on how to take the vow of bodhicitta entitled ''The Ritual for Generating Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādavidhi''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi'' (''Byang chub tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga''), in Derge Tengyur D3966, dbu ma, vol. 112, gi, fols. 237a4–239a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3966.</ref> which contains some detail on the bodhisattva aspirations, is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The Chinese tradition also ascribes to Nāgārjuna a text called ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'' (''Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun''),<ref>For an English translation of this text, see Minoru Kiyota, trans., "The Bodhicitta Śāstra," in ''Esoteric Texts'' (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2015), 103–29.</ref> a tantric text which contains the concept of bodhicitta both as the altruistic mind to take all beings to perfect enlightenment and as the ultimate nature of the mind, or buddha-nature. There is no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of this text.

However, the text attributed to Nāgārjuna which explicitly discusses bodhicitta is his discourse to his royal disciple, claimed to be a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty who ruled in the Deccan plateau in the second century. In fact, Nāgārjuna wrote two homilies, but his ''Epistle to a Friend'' (''suhṛllekhaḥ''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''suhṛllekhaḥ'' (''bshes pa'i spring yig''), in Derge Tengyur D4182,spring yig, vol. 173, nge, fols. 40b4–46b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4182.</ref> does not discuss bodhicitta as does his other work, ''The Precious Garland'' (''Ratnavāli'').<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref> This work discusses bodhicitta, the bodhisattva practices, the stages on the bodhisattva path, and the bodhisattva goal.

In addition to these texts, the Tibetan Tengyur also contains several aspirational prayers for bodhisattva practice that are attributed to Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna’s teachings on bodhicitta, which tradition claims he received from Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom, was passed down mainly through the adherents of the Middle Way school that he initiated. This tradition came to be known as the Profound View tradition and was espoused and propagated by many Buddhist masters from famous universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.

Another famous lineage of bodhicitta teachings known as the Vast Conduct tradition was passed down from Asaṅga (fourth century), who is said to have received the teachings from Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to this tradition, Asaṅga propitiated Maitreya for twelve long years without receiving a vision of Maitreya, even in a dream. Disappointed, Asaṅga gives up the practice of propitiation and leaves his hermitage when he encounters a wretched bitch in agony as her rotting hind is being consumed by maggots. Out of intense compassion, Asaṅga feeds a bit of his own flesh to the dog and uses his tongue to take out the maggots. Disgusted, he does so with closed eyes, but his tongue touches the ground instead of the dog, and Lo, as he opens his eyes, he sees before him Maitreya with his sublime aura. "You have no compassion," Asaṅga complains to Maitreya for not even showing up in his dream, although he worshiped Maitreya for a dozen years. Maitreya tells Asaṅga that he has been near Asaṅga all along but Asaṅga could not see him. Having removed some karmic obscurations after a long retreat, Asaṅga could see Maitreya as a wretched dog. Then, as compassion for the dog stirred within him, Asaṅga removed the obscurations in his mind, making him able to see the divine figure of Maitreya. Maitreya asked Asaṅga to carry him on his shoulder and ask people what they could see. Most people in the town saw nothing, but an old woman saw him carrying a miserable bitch. Subsequently, Maitreya is said to have taken Asaṅga miraculously to Tuṣita Heaven and to have given him the teachings on Maitreya's five works. The three longer treatises of these five works—namely, ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' (''Abhisamayālaṃkāra''), ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), and ''The Ultimate Continuum of Mahāyāna'' (''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'')—varyingly discuss the concept of bodhicitta as an altruistic thought of enlightenment or the nature of one's mind.

In ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', bodhicitta is discussed as the first of the seventy topics related to the Buddhist ground, path, and fruition. We find in this book a very clear definition of bodhicitta, although it uses the term ''cittotpāda''.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=''Cittotpāda'' is the wish to attain the perfect full enlightenment for the sake of others.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་གཞན་དོན་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་རྫོགས་པའི་བྱང་ཆུབ་འདོད། ། Maitreya, ''Abhisamayālaṃkāra'' (''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3786, vol. 80, sher phyin, ka, fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3786.</ref>
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This verse remains the most concise and popular definition of bodhicitta. The text also breaks down bodhicitta into twenty-two types using similes and aligns them to the progression of the bodhisattva path. This same concept is further elaborated in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), in which a whole chapter is dedicated to discussing bodhicitta.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshigs le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, vol. 123, sems tsam, phi, fols. 1a1–39a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref> These two texts by Maitreya and the commentaries on them contain the most detailed theoretical discussions on bodhicitta. In ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', we find not only discussions on relative bodhicitta (i.e., the altruistic thought of enlightenment) but also on ultimate bodhicitta, which is the pristine wisdom discerning the ultimate nature of things.

Asaṅga elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta through his own ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi''), which is a part of his larger work entitled ''The Stages of Yoga Practice'' (''Yogācārabhūmi''). In this work, he points out that bodhicitta has two specific objects.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Therefore, the cultivation of the mind [of enlightenment] aims at enlightenment and also at the welfare of sentient beings.<ref>Asaṅga, ''Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ'' (''Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa las byang chub sems dpa'i sa''), in Derge Tengyur D4037, vol. 129, sems tsam, wi, fol. 7b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4037.</ref>
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It is clear from this statement that Asaṅga is commenting on the definition of bodhicitta provided by Maitreya in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and also in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''. Both Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' and Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' also present the causes and conditions for cultivating bodhicitta. The latter became the main source for the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow in the Vast Conduct tradition. Passed down through Asaṅga, this line of transmission for taking the bodhisattva vow became frequently, though not exclusively, associated with the Mind Only/Yoga Practice school of Mahāyāna. The tradition later became known as the Vast Conduct tradition and was propagated by some of the eminent teachers of bodhicitta.

Besides Nāgārjuna and Asaṅga, the Tibetan tradition also includes Aśvaghoṣa among the early proponents of bodhicitta. Aśvaghoṣa, who is generally believed to have lived sometime within the first two centuries of the common era, was an acclaimed Buddhist poet, dramatist, and the author of poetic works such as ''The Acts of the Buddha'' (''Buddhacarita''), ''Beautiful Nanda'' (''Saundarananda''), and ''The Story of Śāriputra'' (''Śāriputraprakaraṇa''). The Chinese tradition ascribes ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'' (''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra'', ''Dasheng qixin lun'') to Aśvaghoṣa, although modern scholars contest this attribution. The Tibetan Tengyur canon contains two works on relative and ultimate bodhicitta that are considered to be by Aśvaghoṣa,<ref>Aśvaghoṣa, ''Saṃvṛtibodhicittabhāvanopadeśavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge pad+ma spungs pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3911, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 13b4–15a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3911, and ''Paramārthabodhicittabhāvanākramavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Don dam pa byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge rin po che'i sgron ma zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3912, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 15a6–16b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3912.</ref> but there is no known record of the transmission of teachings on bodhicitta from Aśvaghoṣa.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings in India and Beyond ==
It is not clear when the names given to the two traditions of Mahāyāna teachings—the Vast Conduct tradition and the Profound View tradition—were introduced, and the names appear to have undergone different phases. However, written records clearly point to the actual teachings on bodhicitta being passed down through generations of Nāgārjuna's and Asaṅga's followers. For the Profound View school, after Nāgārjuna, his disciple Āryadeva promoted bodhicitta in his writings, particularly in ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yogic Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'').<ref>Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'' (''Bstan bcos bzhi brgya pa zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3846, vol. 97, dbu ma, tsha, fols. 1a1–18a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> "The cultivation of the initial thought of enlightenment," he claimed, "outshines even the merit which can make all beings on earth universal monarchs."<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་སེམས་དང་པོ། །ས་སྟེངས་སྐྱེ་བོ་ཐམས་ཅད་ནི། །འཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བ་ཉིད་འགྱུར་བ། །དེ་དག་བསོད་ནམས་ལས་ཁྱད་འཕགས། ། Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'', fol. 6a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> Similarly, Bhāvaviveka (ca. 500–570 CE) composed his ''Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā''), devoting the opening chapter to the topic of bodhicitta. In it he writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Bodhicitta is the seed of buddhas
Adorned with loving-kindness,
Compassion and knowledge.
The wise shall not abandon it.<ref>བྱམས་པ་དང་ནི་སྙིང་རྗེ་དང་། །ཤེས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྒྱན་པ་ཡི། །སངས་རྒྱས་ས་བོན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Bhāvaviveka, ''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā'' (''Dbu ma'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3855, vol. 98, dbu ma, dza, fols. 2a–2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3855.</ref>
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Candrakīrti, the author of ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''),<ref>Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, vol. 102, dbu ma, 'a, fols. 201b1–219a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta in the context of the Mahāyāna path, particularly as understood in the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna. Although Candrakīrti had issues with Bhāvaviveka on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s logical procedures to establish the ultimate truth, they shared the same zest for underscoring the importance of bodhicitta on the bodhisattva path to perfect enlightenment. Candrakīrti organized his famous work using the ten stages of the bodhisattva path and the different levels of bodhicitta. Right at the outset of the work, he declares that bodhicitta, compassion, and the understanding of nonduality are the causes of bodhisattvas.

The most influential champion of bodhicitta teachings in India, however, was undoubtedly Śāntideva, the author of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'')<ref>Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fols. 1a1–40a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> and ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'').<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 3a2–194b52, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. See also the verse summary: ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 1a1–3a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref> Śāntideva probably lived around the beginning of the eighth century CE and was likely born in North India, although we have no evidence or records from his time. Most of what we know about him comes from accounts of his life written long after his time by faithful followers. Like the Buddha, he is said to have been born as a prince in North India but to have renounced his kingdom to pursue a spiritual career through the guidance of his tutelary deity Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom. Śāntideva is said to have reached a high level of erudition and spiritual enlightenment through Mañjuśrī’s blessings, although, outwardly, he appeared as a lazy monk, indulging in eating, sleeping, and relieving himself, thus earning him the nickname Busuku.

As the story goes, it was to mock his indolence and to shame him that his peers persuaded Śāntideva to give a public sermon. Śāntideva agreed and is said to have miraculously climbed on the unreasonably high throne they purposely set up to mock him. Śāntideva then asked the congregation whether they wanted an exposition of a text that already existed or something new. They asked for a new teaching, resulting in Śāntideva's delivery of the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'', or ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva is said to have levitated into the sky as he recited the verse "When existence and nonexistence do not remain before the mind, as there is no other aspect, the mind comes to rest without any grasping."<ref>གང་ཚེ་དངོས་དང་དངོས་མེད་དག ། བློ་ཡི་མདུན་ན་མི་གནས་པ། །དེ་ཚེ་རྣམ་པ་གཞན་མེད་པས། །དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི། ། Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 32a.4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> He rose higher and higher until he disappeared, his voice still being heard. The disappearance into sky could be understood as an allegory for the highest experience of transcendence and emptiness of all conceptual thoughts in Śāntideva’s philosophical system. However, an old manuscript recently discovered in Drepung Monastery states that Śāntideva’s reputation soared after his recitation, resulting in much veneration and offering. And Śāntideva is said to have left Nālandā to avoid the distraction entailed by such attention.<ref>Anonymous, ''Spyod 'jug gi bsdus don dang slob dpon zhi ba lha'i lo rgyus'', in Bka' gdams gsung 'bum phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, Par gzhi dang po (Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), 6:9–14, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD153536_DD71AE.</ref> Thus, Śāntideva's miraculous disappearance into the sky likely represents a later mythological embellishment of the actual circumstances surrounding his departure.

Whatever the case may be of its origins, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' has arguably become the most influential Buddhist work in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition on bodhicitta. In this work, Śāntideva lays out the practice of bodhicitta in ten chapters, making bold claims such as:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Those who wish to crush the many sorrows of existence,
Who wish to quell the pain of living beings,
Who wish to have experience of a myriad joys
Should never turn away from bodhichitta. (1.8)<ref>སྲིད་པའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་གཞོམ་འདོད་ཅིང་། །སེམས་ཅན་མི་བདེ་བསལ་བར་འདོད་པ་དང་། །བདེ་མང་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་སྤྱོད་པར་འདོད་པས་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྟག་ཏུ་གཏང་མི་བྱ། ། This translation belongs to the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 32. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 2a.4–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Since its propagation in the eighth century, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', combining highly inspirational exhortations and incisive philosophical arguments in an evocative poetic language, appears to have become the ''locus classicus'' for bodhicitta study and practice, used and cited by many writers after its appearance. It was Śāntideva who also explicitly presented the meditation on equality between self and others and exchange between self and others as a way to cultivate bodhicitta, as illustrated by the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Do not be downcast, but marshal all your powers;
Make an effort; be the master of yourself!
Practice the equality of self and other;
Practice the exchange of self and other. (7.16)<ref>སྒྱིད་ལུག་མེད་པར་དཔུང་ཚོགས་དང་། །ལྷུར་བླང་བདག་ཉིད་དབང་བྱ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་མཉམ་པ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་བརྗེ་བར་བགྱི། ། This translation is by the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 99. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 20b.5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Traditional Tibetan scholars claimed that over a hundred Indian commentaries were written on Śāntideva’s famous work, but there are only twelve Indian commentaries on it available today. They include works by Prajñākaramati, Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Kalyāṇadeva, Vairocanarakṣita, Vinītadeva, Vibhūticandra, Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, and Atiśa.

While ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' is an original work by Śantideva written in poetic verse, his other major work, ''The Compendium of Training'', is an anthology of citations of passages from sūtras interspersed with his own words. The two works most likely developed simultaneously in an iterative process, the latter being a compilation of sources for the former in verse. ''The Compendium of Training'' was condensed into a shorter verse summary, the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'', the gist of which is presented by the following verses.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions.
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them.<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྡོམ་པ་ནི། །རྒྱས་པར་ཐེག་པ་ཆེ་ལས་འབྱུང་། །གང་གིས་ལྟུང་བར་མི་འགྱུར་བའི། །གནད་ཀྱི་གནས་རྣམས་འདིར་རིག་བྱ། །བདག་གི་ལུས་དང་ལོངས་སྤྱོད་དང་། །དགེ་བ་དུས་གསུམ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས། །སེམས་ཅན་ཀུན་ལ་བཏང་བ་དང་། །དེ་བསྲུང་དག་པ་སྤེལ་བའོ། These are verses 3 and 4 of the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā''. For the Tibetan text, see ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 1b.3–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
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Despite being an important source for bodhisattva practice, there are only two commentarial works on ''The Compendium of Training''. One is an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and the other is a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa.

The study and practice of bodhicitta within the Profound View tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism reached unprecedented heights following the eighth century, largely through the contributions of Śāntideva. In addition to the masters who commented on Śāntideva’s works mentioned above, there were other masters such as Mañjuśrīmitra, Jñānagarbha, Jetāri, Puṇyaśrī, Dhanaśrī, Vimalamitra, Śāntarakṣita, and Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla, who took up the scholarship and practice on bodhicitta. Among them, Mañjuśrīmitra and Jñānagarbha focused on the exposition of ultimate bodhicitta, which discerns the ultimate reality of emptiness, while Jetāri wrote a manual for taking the bodhisattva vow and a practice manual for beginners. In his treatise entitled ''Presenting Twelve Points on the Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa''), Mañjuśrīmitra argues that bodhicitta is the mother of all buddhas, the basis of all disciplines, the foundation of all merit, the source of all enlightened qualities, the basis of liberation, and the supreme path leading to enlightenment.<ref>See ''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2578, vol. 65, rgyud, ngu, fols. 44b4–59a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2578.</ref> However, the most prolific Indian author on bodhicitta belonging to the Middle Way school in the first millennium after Śāntideva was Kamalaśīla. He wrote his trilogy on ''The Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama'') in which he presented the gradual process of the bodhisattva path. He and his teacher Śāntarakṣita, both of whom visited Tibet in the second half of the eighth century, and Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, who traveled to Tibet in the middle of the eleventh century, were the leading doyens who transmitted the teachings on bodhicitta to Tibet.

As for the Vast Conduct tradition, which is supposed to have come down from Maitreya and the pioneer advocate Asaṅga, it continued through Vasubandhu, the younger brother of Asaṅga, who initially followed a non-Mahāyāna school and was critical of Asaṅga's teachings, but later embraced the Mahāyāna school of Mind Only. Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Asaṅga's ''The Compendium of Mahāyāna'' (''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''), and ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Aspiration to Good Actions'' (''Āryabhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja''). Additionally, a work entitled ''Treatise on the Generation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādaśāstra'') is attributed to him. Other commentators and masters who continued the teachings on bodhicitta in this line include Vasubandhu's students Sthiramati, Dignāga, and Guṇaprabha, who wrote various commentaries. They were followed by Jinaputra, Jñānaśrī, Niḥsvabhāvatā, Parahitabhadra, and Sāgaramegha, whose works are included in the Tibetan Tengyur canon. A prominent master of this line was the householder Candragomin,<ref>While there is no complete scholarly consensus, the majority of modern scholarship seems to place Candragomin in either the fifth–sixth centuries CE (the earlier estimate) or more commonly in the seventh century CE (approximately 600–650 CE, with the latter being the more widely accepted timeframe among contemporary scholars.</ref> who authored a treatise called ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'')<ref>See ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4081, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 166b1–167a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4081.</ref> and is said to have challenged Candrakīrti in debate. Śāntarakṣita and Bodhibhadra wrote commentaries on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses''.<ref>See ''Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti'' (''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4082, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 167a6–184b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4082, and ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśakapañjikā'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa'i dka' 'grel''), in Derge Tengyur D4083, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 184b3–217b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4083.</ref> The teachings and instructions in this tradition were passed down to Atiśa mainly by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa in the tenth century.

While the teachings on bodhicitta spread through these two Mahāyāna lineages, Mahāyāna Buddhism also saw the rise of yet another mode of practice and transmission. This was the emergence of what came to be called Vajrayāna or tantric Buddhism, as the system was mainly based on a body of literature called tantras. Purported to be the words of the Buddha just like the Mahāyāna sūtras, these tantras presented a path to enlightenment that included a wide range of mental, verbal, and embodied tools, as well as radical techniques. Focused on the unraveling of the innate mind of enlightenment, it adopted a syncretic approach, using a great number of non-Buddhist rituals and elements infused with Buddhist philosophies and values to bring about an expedient internal transformation. The tantric masters and texts underscored the importance of bodhicitta as an indispensable component of the Vajrayāna path. They promoted the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta as an intention to seek buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings but championed the understanding of bodhicitta as the realization of the innate nature of the mind and existence. We find also in the Vajrayāna teachings the presentation of symbolic and embodied forms of bodhicitta, which Dorji Wangchuk categorizes as psycho-physiological and semeiological bodhicitta. These esoteric Vajrayāna teachings on bodhicitta flourished in India toward the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, when it also started to spread to Tibet.

A couple centuries after their emergence in India, the teachings on bodhicitta began to spread beyond India. The teachings first traveled to Central Asia and from there to China. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', for instance, was translated by Lokakṣema in 179 BCE. This was followed by the translation of many other sūtras and commentaries by translators such as Paramārtha, Dharmarakṣa, Kumārajīva, Buddhabhadra, and Dharmakṣema in the subsequent centuries. These included the main sūtras containing teachings on bodhicitta such as ''The Flower Ornament Sūtra'' (''Avataṃsakasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'', ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'', ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'', ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'', ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'', and the other versions of the perfection of wisdom sūtras. From the accounts of Āryadeva and Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, we can also surmise that the teachings on bodhicitta spread to Ceylon and southeastern parts of Asia.

== The Transmission of Bodhicitta Teachings to Tibet ==
Tibetan historians claim that some Buddhist sūtras, such as ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' (དཔང་སྐོང་ཕྱག་བརྒྱ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ།)<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 1b1–5b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267. No Sanskrit or Chinese versions of this sūtra are known to exist.</ref> and ''The Basket's Display'' (''Karaṇḍavyūhasūtra''),<ref>''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa za ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur, D116, vol. 51, mdo sde, pa, fols. 200a3–247b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0116.</ref> reached Tibet during the reign of the twenty-eighth Yarlung king, Lha Thothori, sometime in the fifth century. Although no one in Tibet understood the texts at that time, they contained teachings on altruism and the bodhisattva path. While ''The Basket's Display'' mainly focuses on the virtues of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion, and his mantra, ''oṃ maṇi padme huṃ'', ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' contains homages to buddhas, the twelve sets of the Buddha's teachings, and bodhisattvas. It also explicitly mentions bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I, by the name . . . from now on until I reach the heart of enlightenment, shall cultivate the thought of enlightenment. I shall never let go of the thought of enlightenment. May I never be separated from the sublime virtuous friend.<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 5a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267.</ref>
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The Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on bodhicitta in particular may have spread to Tibet in some form in the seventh century during the reign of the thirty-second Yarlung monarch Songtsen Gampo. During this time Songtsen Gampo took two Buddhist brides—one from Tang China and another from the Kathmandu Valley—and also sent his minister Thönmi Sambhoṭa to India to learn Sanskrit. While we see the general introduction of the Buddhist system at this time, there are no specific records of texts related to bodhicitta having been translated or taught during this period, although later records such as the ''Maṇi Kabum'' would have us believe that teachings on compassion and bodhicitta were promulgated. Tibetan Buddhists also believe that the study and practice of bodhicitta and compassion formed a fundamental part of Songtsen Gampo’s promotion of the Buddhist religion, as he was himself considered an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion.

Historical records clearly point to the dissemination of teachings on bodhicitta in Tibet in the eighth century during the reign of Trisong Detsen, the thirty-seventh king of the Yarlung dynasty. Besides inviting to Tibet numerous Buddhist scholars and masters such as Śāntarakṣita, Padmasambhava, and Vimalamitra from India and Mohoyen from China, Tri Songdetsen initiated extensive Buddhist projects, including the construction of Samye Monastery, the institution of the first Tibetan monastic community, and above all the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan from Sanskrit and Chinese. A great number of Mahāyāna sūtras, which contained the teachings on bodhicitta, as well as many tantras and commentaries, were translated toward the end of the eighth century and beginning of the ninth century, as witnessed by the catalogs of texts created around that time. For instance, ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', which elaborates on the cultivation of bodhicitta, and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', two of the main treatises discussing bodhicitta, were translated as part of this massive translation program.

Similarly, tantric texts such as ''The Garland of Views: The King of Pith Instructions'' (''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'')<ref>*''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'' (''Man ngag gi rgyal po lta ba'i 'phreng ba''), in Pe cing Tengyur Q4726, vol. 77, rgyud 'grel, bu, 414b7–419b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG13126_4726.</ref> by Padmasambhava and ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (aka ''Bodhicittabhāvanā'') by Mañjuśrīmitra,<ref>*''Bodhicittabhāvanā'' (''Byang sems rdo la gser zhun''), also known as ''Meditation on Bodhicitta'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2591, vol. 66, rgyud 'grel, cu, 1b1–4b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2591.</ref> which explain the concept of ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric context, were also translated and taught. Mañjuśrīmitra praises bodhicitta in the latter text as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All dharmas considered to be sublime features of liberation
Are qualities of perfecting bodhicitta; they come from bodhicitta.<ref>ཇི་སྙེད་འཕགས་པའི་རྣམ་གྲོལ་ཆོས་སུ་བསྙད་པ་དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྫོགས་ལས་དེ་ཡི་ཡོན་ཏན་དེ་ལས་དེ་དག་བྱུང་། Mañjuśrīmitra, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems sde spyi'i snying po'i bstan bcos byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun'', in Damngak Dzö, vol. 1, ka, 182, fol. 9b2–3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun#tab=Tibetan_Text.</ref>
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Many texts now included in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras (Nyingma Gyubum), such as ''The All Creating King of Bodhicitta'' (''Kulayarājatantra''),<ref>''Sarvadharmamahāśantibodhicittakulayarāja'' (''Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems kun byed rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D828, vol. 97, rnying rgyud, ka, 1b1–86a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0828.</ref> formulate the concept of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and appear to have been translated by Vairocana and others during this period. History also records a debate between the gradualist Indian tradition, led by Kamalaśīla, and the simultaneist Chinese tradition, led by Mohoyen, with King Trisong Detsen as the judge. The Indian side that promoted a gradualist approach to the cultivation of bodhicitta is said to have won, and the king is said to have declared the gradualist Indian tradition to be the official system in Tibet. This period of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet came to be known as the early diffusion period, or ''ngadar'', in contrast to the later diffusion period, or ''chidar'', which took place in Tibet from the eleventh century onward.

The great Buddhist intellectual and spiritual activity in Tibet that included the translation of innumerable works and the open promotion of Buddhist teachings stopped in the middle of the ninth century. As the Yarlung dynasty collapsed due to internecine conflicts, Tibet entered a century and half of political fragmentation and intellectual decline. However, with the revival of Buddhist systems toward the end of the tenth century, Tibet witnessed a resurgence of the study and practice of bodhicitta both in the exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric traditions. Those who preserved the teachings from the early diffusion period became known as the Ancient, or Nyingma, school, while others who brought new teachings from India, Nepal, and Kashmir came to be known as the New, or Sarma, schools. The new schools included some of the leading sects such as Kadam, Kagyu, and Sakya.

Within the Nyingma school, the teachings on bodhicitta continued through the received tradition known as the ''kama'' teachings as well as the new revelations known as ''terma''. The received ''kama'' tradition, which covers the complete range of the Buddhist system, including the nine vehicles, passed on the study and practice of bodhicitta as an essential component of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna path. Most of the books in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras, considered to be apocryphal writings by later critics, began to circulate as Buddhism was revived in the eleventh century. Many of these works described bodhicitta as the state of perfect enlightenment which is latent in beings. This was further enhanced by the ''terma'' literature, which is believed to have been hidden by Padmasambhava and his coterie in the eighth and ninth centuries to be revealed and disseminated by treasure discoverers, or ''tertön''s, at the right time in the future. Composed mostly of ritual liturgies and meditation instructions, the numerous cycles of rediscovered teachings also promoted bodhicitta as a fundamental aspect of Vajrayāna practice.

The new schools equally underscored the importance of bodhicitta in both exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric study and practice. Among the most notable developments in this period was the arrival of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1055) in Tibet in 1042 CE at the invitation of Jangchub Ö, the king of Western Tibet. Historians narrate that with the chaotic and decentralized revival of Buddhism in Tibet toward the end of tenth century, the kings of Western Tibet were alarmed by the wayward conduct of some Buddhist teachers who were abusing tantric practices by making some of the secretive teachings public and taking some of the symbolic teachings literally. Thus, the kings felt the urgency to correct this by inviting an authoritative and eminent master from India, a bill which Atiśa fit perfectly, as he had become renowned as the most erudite and accomplished master in India by this time. Traditional Tibetan historians claim that Yeshe Ö, the monk ruler of Western Tibet and uncle of Jangchub Ö, was taken prisoner in a conflict with the Garlog Turks, who demanded a ransom in gold equal to his size. Yeshe Ö is said to have instructed his nephew to use the gold his nephew had raised to invite Atiśa to Tibet, rather than giving it to the Turks. This story, contested by some modern scholars, is often told to highlight the personal sacrifices made by Tibet’s kings to bring the sacred teachings of the Buddha to Tibet.<ref>See Sam van Schaik, ''Tibet: A History'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 57.</ref>

After two separate emissaries to India led by Gya Lotsāwa Tsöndru Senge (བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེངྒེ་, d.u.) and Naktso Lotsāwa Tsultrim Gyalwa (ནག་འཚོ་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱལ་བ་, 1011–1064) respectively, and after much effort to persuade the abbot of Vikramaśīla, Atiśa was allowed to travel to Tibet. Jangchub Ö received him in Western Tibet, and during his time in the royal court, Atiśa composed ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhipathapradīpa'', (''Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma''), in Derge Tengyur D3947, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 238a6–241a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3947.</ref> a treatise which laid out the spiritual path for three types of persons. This text, along with its autocommentary, highlighted the ethical aspects of the Buddhist path, including the practice of bodhicitta, and would become the exemplar of the ''lamrim'' genre of literature on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Atiśa also composed the short text ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' (''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 294b7–296a1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref> which supplemented his earlier work on the conduct of the bodhisattva. He writes in it:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Cultivate loving kindness and compassion;
Hold firm the thought of enlightenment. (v. 5)<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེ་བསྒོམ་བྱ་ཞིང༌། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ནི་བརྟན་པར་བྱ། ། ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 295a.2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref>
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Besides these two main works on bodhicitta and Mahāyāna, Atiśa also composed numerous other treatises and commentaries, many of them at the request of his Tibetan students. His teachings were spread by his many students, including Dromtön Gyalwai Jungne (འབྲོམ་སྟོན་རྒྱལ་བའི་འབྱུང་གནས་, 1004–64), his lay disciple who established Reting Monastery and launched the Kadam tradition, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab (རྔོག་ལེགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ, eleventh century), who founded Sangpu Neuthok, the famous Buddhist scholastic center in Tibet that flourished from the eleventh–fourteenth centuries. The three chief students of Dromtönpa—Potowa Rinchen Sal (པོ་ཏོ་བ་རིན་ཆེན་གསལ་, 1027–1105), Chengawa Tsultrim Bar (སྤྱན་སྔ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་འབར་, 1033/8–1103), and Puchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen (ཕུ་ཆུང་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1031–1106)—often referred to as the three brothers (''སྐུ་མཆེད་རྣམ་གསུམ་''), developed the Kadam tradition further and initiated the rise of the rich and powerful tradition of Lojong, or mind training. At the heart of the Lojong tradition is the practice of cultivating bodhicitta, particularly through the seven points of cause and effect.

While Atiśa was on his way to Tibet, he met Marpa Chökyi Lodro (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012?–1097) in Kathmandu. Marpa, who declined to be Atiśa’s translator, was at that time on his trip to India to receive teachings from Nāropa. Having received teachings from many masters such as Nāropa, Maitrīpa, and Jñānagarbha, Marpa started giving teachings to numerous disciples in southern Tibet, leading to the establishment of the Marpa Kagyu school. Teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta were disseminated through this school, and they were especially integrated into the instructions on Mahāmudrā and the Six Yogas of Nāropa. These teachings would spread widely in the subsequent centuries through the different subschools founded by the followers of Marpa.

Before Marpa embarked on his journeys to India, he studied under Drokmi Śākya Yeshe (འབྲོག་མི་ཤཱཀྱ་ཡེ་ཤེས་, 992?–1043/1072), whose fees turned out to be too high for Marpa to afford. Drokmi had traveled to Nepal and India before Marpa and studied under many Buddhist teachers. He also translated many texts, but his specialization lay in the teachings on the Path and Result, or Lamdre (ལམ་འབྲས་), which he received from Gayadhāra (ག་ཡ་དྷ་ར་, 994–1043) and Prajñendraruci (aka Vīravajra, eleventh century). In Tibet, he passed on these teachings to his main disciples, including Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya school, which has championed the teachings of the Path and Result, of which bodhicitta is an essential component.

The bodhicitta teachings propagated by Marpa and Drokmi relied heavily on extensive new tantras such as the ''Hevajra'', ''Cakrasaṃvara'', and ''Guhyasamaja''. They promoted the concept of bodhicitta both in its ethical dimension as the compassionate intention to take all sentient beings to perfect enlightenment and its ontological dimension as the state of ultimate reality. The following statement from the ''Hevajratantra'' sums up this unity:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=That which is called bodhicitta
Is the nonduality of emptiness and compassion.<ref>སྟོང་ཉིད་སྙིང་རྗེ་དབྱེར་མེད་པ། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་རབ་ཏུ་བརྗོད། ། ''Hevajratantra'' (''Kye'i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D417, vol. 80, rgyud, nga, fol. 13a.3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0417.</ref>
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The tantric teachings of the newer Marpa Kagyu and Sakya schools also discuss what Dorji Wangchuk calls the "psycho-physiological form of bodhicitta"—referring to seminal bodily fluids within tantric practices that utilize physical and psychic energies as catalysts for speedy spiritual transformation.<ref>For this discussion in Wangchuk, see chapter 6 in ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 217–23.</ref> Thus, the discussion of bodhicitta in such tantric contexts saw new heights in Tibetan religious discourse as the tantric schools gained prominence and became mainstream Buddhist traditions in Tibet.

Another important tradition through which the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread in Tibet, although the tradition did not take off to the same extent as the Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, and Sakya, is the Shangpa Kagyu, which originated in the famous scholar and meditation master Khyungpo Naljor (Khyung po rnal 'byor, 1050–1127). Khyungpo Naljor visited India and Nepal around seven times and studied under numerous teachers, his main masters being the female savants Sukhasiddhi and Nāropa’s sister Niguma, from whom he received the Six Yogas of Niguma. Similarly, the practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through the tradition of Severance, or Chö (''གཅོད་''), which is said to have begun with Machik Labdron (མ་གཅིག་ལབ་སྒྲོན་, 1055–1149), and Pacification, or Zhije (''ཞི་བྱེད་''), a tradition attributed to Padampa Sangye (ཕ་དམ་པ་སངས་རྒྱས་, eleventh century). ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' by the brahmin Āryadeva, which is a root text of the Chöd tradition, states at the outset:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Take up with respect the practice of refuge and thought of enlightenment
Follow the precepts like protecting one’s eyes.
The precepts of the bodhisattva
Should not be abandoned even at the cost of one’s life. v.5<ref>གུས་པས་སྐྱབས་འགྲོ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་བླང་། །བླངས་པའི་བསླབ་བྱ་མིག་བཞིན་བསྲུང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་བསླབ་བྱ་ནི། །སྲོག་གི་ཕྱིར་ཡང་སྤང་མི་བྱ། ། Āryadeva, ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod (Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999), 14:2-3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:%27phags_pa_shes_rab_kyi_pha_rol_tu_phyin_pa%27i_man_ngag Retrieved on 4/6/2025.</ref>
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Similarly, Padampa Sangye, in one of his famous pieces of advice given to the local people in Dingri, states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The six realms of beings are precious as fields for gathering two accumulations.
Hold a loving mind and compassion, O Dingri people.<ref>ཚོགས་གཉིས་ཡུལ་དུ་རིགས་དྲུག་སེམས་ཅན་གཅེས། །བྱམས་སེམས་ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཟུངས་ཤིག་དིང་རི་བ། ། Padampa Sangye, ''Heart Advice Called The Stack of Lotus'' (''Thugs kyi zhal gdams pad+mo brtsegs pa''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod, 13:449, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Thugs_kyi_zhal_chems_pad_mo_brtsegs_pa#tab=null.</ref>
}}
The study and practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through other transmissions such as the Kālacakra (more specifically, the six branches of yogic practice associated with Kālacakra teachings) and through the three vajra accomplishment practice of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pel (ཨོ་རྒྱན་པ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1229–1309). These transmissions, along with the teachings and meditation techniques in the Nyingma, Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, Shangpa Kagyu, and Sakya schools, as well as the Severance and Pacification traditions, make up the "eight great chariots of practice" (''སྒྲུབ་བརྒྱུད་ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེ་བརྒྱད་'') and are considered to be the main practice lineages that formed during the Buddhist resurgence of the later diffusion period. It was through these traditions that the study and practice of bodhicitta, as an essential element of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, spread across Tibet.

== The Propagation of Bodhicitta Teachings in Tibet ==

=== The Nyingma School ===
As these Buddhist schools and their associated teachings and practices flourished from the eleventh century onward—having first developed in the eighth century—Tibet also witnessed the sustained spread of bodhicitta teachings. Among the Nyingma, we see the continuous transmission of bodhicitta study and practice both through the received ''kama'' tradition and the new ''terma'' revelations. While the rediscovered ''terma'' teachings focused primarily on ritual texts and meditation instructions that emphasized bodhicitta as a key practice, the ''kama'' tradition presented bodhicitta mainly as an ontological state representing ultimate reality. This was done through discourses on the ground nature, the path of pristine awareness, and the resultant state of the Buddha, all of which were presented as the nondual, innate, luminous nature of the mind.

The three inner tantras of the Nyingma—comprising Mahāyoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga—and the outer mind cycle, inner space cycle, and secret instruction cycle of the Atiyoga or Dzogchen teachings underscored the study and practice of bodhicitta as the innate nature of one’s mind. These tantric presentations were systematized and elaborated in the writings of leading Nyingma masters such as Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, mid-eleventh–early twelfth centuries), Longchenpa Drime Ozer (ཀློང་ཆེན་རབ་འབྱམས་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyel (མངའ་རིས་པཎ་ཆེན་པདྨ་དབང་རྒྱལ་, 1487–1542), Lochen Dharmaśrī (ལོ་ཆེན་དྷརྨ་ཤྲཱི་, 1654–1718), and Jigme Lingpa (འཇིགས་མེད་གླིང་པ་, 1739–1798). Rongzom and Longchenpa, for instance, carried out detailed discussions on bodhicitta in the context of the ultimate nature of the mind in Dzogchen thought, making them the greatest thinkers and masters of the Dzogchen system. In his treatise ''Entering the Way of the Mahāyāna'' (''ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་''), Rongzom discusses bodhicitta in detail and states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The base of all phenomena is included in the mind and appearances of the mind. The nature of the mind is awakening, thus it is called the mind of awakening.<ref>ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་རྩ་བ་ནི་སེམས་དང་སེམས་སྣང་བ་ཙམ་དུ་འདུས་ལ། སེམས་ཀྱི་རང་བཞིན་ཉིད་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཡིན་པས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་བྱའོ།། See Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po’i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:477.</ref>
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He also writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Here, bodhicitta is the cultivation of thought combining wisdom and compassion.<ref>དེ་ལ་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་ནི་འདིར་ཤེས་རབ་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་བསྡུས་པའི་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའོ།། Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po'i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:500.</ref>
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Rongzompa, Longchenpa, and Lochen Dharmaśrī also commented on ''The Heart of Secret Tantra'' (''Guhyagarbhatantra''), which highlights the concept of bodhicitta as the innate nature of reality. Rongzom starts his commentary on this tantra with the claim that "bodhicitta is the essence of Three Jewels."<ref>དཀོན་མཆོག་གསུམ་གྱི་རང་བཞིན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Rongzom Chozang, ''Rgyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:33.</ref> With great emphasis on the higher tantric practices, the Nyingma masters vigorously took up the study and practice of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and as the pristine nonconceptual self-awareness of such nature.

The Nyingma masters also covered the concept of bodhicitta as the altruistic intention to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Among them, Longchenpa, who is unrivaled among the Nyingma masters in the systematization and synthesis of the Nyingma teachings in general and the Dzogchen system in particular, was perhaps the first one to discuss the theory and practice of relative bodhicitta in detail. He did this in two of his major works: ''The Treasury of Wish-fulfilling Jewels'' (''ཡིད་བཞིན་མཛོད་'')<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Yid bzhin mdzod rtsa ba'', in Mdzod bdun (a 'dzom par ma) (A 'dzom chos sgar: Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul dpal yul rdzong a 'dzom chos sgar, 1999), 1:3–88, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD8_31FD92.</ref> and ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' (''སེམས་ཉིད་ངལ་གསོ་'').<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:25–113, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_BEDB7A. For an English translation, see Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''Finding Rest in the Nature of the Mind'', vol. 1 of ''The Trilogy of Rest'', by Longchenpa (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, 2017).</ref> Like Rongzompa's description of bodhicitta as the essence of the Three Jewels, Longchenpa claims bodhicitta to be the root of all Dharma in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having become properly accustomed to the immeasurable thoughts,
One must cultivate the two types of bodhicitta, the root of all Dharma.<ref>དེ་ལྟར་ཚད་མེད་ལེགས་པར་གོམས་པ་ཡིས། །ཆོས་ཀུན་རྩ་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་གཉིས་བསྒོམ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes poʼi shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:46–47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
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He also defines bodhicitta in the following manner:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=To cultivate the [bodhicitta] thought is to desire
To reach the perfect buddha for the sake of limitless beings.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་ཚད་མེད་འགྲོ་བའི་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་སངས་རྒྱས་ཐོབ་པར་འདོད་པ་སྟེ། །སྨོན་དང་འཇུག་པའི་རང་བཞིན་གཉིས་ཡིན་ནོ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
}}
Closely following Longchenpa's elaborate discussion of bodhicitta—its definition, types, procedures for taking bodhicitta vow, and precepts—in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' and its two-volume commentary entitled ''The Great Chariot'' (''ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེན་པོ་''),<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'i 'grel pa shing rta chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), vols. 20–21, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref> Ngari Paṇchen carries out a clear and elaborate discussion of bodhicitta and bodhisattva ethics in his ''Ascertaining Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་པ་གསུམ་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ་''),<ref>See Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyal, ''Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'', in Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'i rtsa ba dang mchan 'grel rig pa 'dzin pa'i 'jug ngogs (Bylakuppe: Snga 'gyur mtho slob mdo sngags rig pa'i 'byung gnas, 1996), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23221. For an English translation of the root text, see Khenpo Gyurme Samdrub and Sangye Khandro, trans., ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'', by Ngari Paṇchen Wangyal, with commentary by Dudjom Rinpoche (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2014).</ref> on which Lochen Dharmaśrī wrote a commentary.<ref>See Lochen Dharmaśrī, ''Sdom gsum rtsa ba dang de'i 'grel pa dpag bsam snye ma sogs'' (Gser rta rdzong: Gser thang bla rung lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, n.d.), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN4872.</ref> Dharmaśrī also wrote a detailed explanation of the eighteen root downfalls or transgressions associated with the bodhisattva vow according to ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''. Similarly, Jigme Lingpa deliberated on bodhicitta in ''The Treasury of Precious Qualities'' (''ཡོན་ཏན་མཛོད་'') and in his autocommentary.<ref>See Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod dga' ba'i char'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (A 'dzom par ma: 'Brug spa gror bskyar par btab pa, 1990–1999), 1:29–166, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW7477_19AE1E.</ref>

The master most famous for championing the promotion of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, however, was Patrul Orgyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo (དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་ཨོ་རྒྱན་འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་ཀྱི་དབང་པོ་, 1808–1887). This wandering teacher reportedly taught ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' over a hundred times. His love for and expertise in this text was so remarkable that he was considered an incarnation of the Indian master Śāntideva by his contemporaries. Patrul held regular teaching retreats during which he would expound upon the text and also carry out the cultivation of bodhicitta. In this manner, he left behind a rich tradition of teaching and practicing bodhicitta in general and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in particular. He also authored the famous inspirational work entitled ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''ཀུན་བཟང་བླ་མའི་ཞལ་ལུང་།''),<ref>See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Kun bzang bla ma'i zhal lung'', part 1 and 2 (Kathmandu: Rigpe Dorje Institute, 2024), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-1-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-1/; https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-2-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-2/.</ref> which contains persuasive stories and teachings on compassion and bodhicitta. In one of his prayers, ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (''རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་མཆོག་ཏུ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའི་སྨོན་ལམ།''), he remarks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood.<ref> ཡོད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་དེས་ཆོག་ཅིང་། །མེད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་ཐབས་ཆག་པ། །སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་པའི་ས་བོན་མ་ནོར་བ། །རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་བསྐྱེད་པར་ཤོག ། For the Tibetan text, see Patrul Rinpoche, ''Rnam dag byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i smon lam'' (Lotsawa House, 2010, rev. 2012 & 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/patrul-rinpoche/aspiration-generate-bodhichitta. The translation belongs to Karma Phuntsho.</ref>
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Patrul's inspiration and influence spread beyond his own Nyingma school, especially with regard to his deep understanding and unparalleled expertise in teaching and practicing bodhicitta according to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. In the true spirit of Rime ecumenism of which he was a leading advocate, he would teach this text to different audiences, using the commentaries and giving interpretations which were most appropriate to each group. He did not compose a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as did many other Tibetan masters, but he wrote a guide for putting the text into practice and a powerful outline that captures the content and layout of the entire text with exceptional clarity and cohesion. Patrul became an immensely respected doyen for the study and practice of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', so much so that almost everyone studying and teaching the text after him embraced his lineage and traced their line of transmission to him.

Patrul's students recorded the gems of his insight into ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the commentary they put together. Among the many students who received teachings from him on bodhicitta was Orgyen Tenzin Norbu (ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་ནོར་བུ་, 1841?–1900?), who received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' from Patrul many times and taught it some two hundred times. Both he and Patrul taught Kunzang Palden (ཀུན་བཟང་དཔལ་ལྡན་, 1862–1943), who recorded their instructions in the extensive commentary entitled ''The Nectar of Mañjuśrī's Speech''.<ref>Kunzang Pelden, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i tshig 'grel 'jam dbyangs bla ma'i zhal lung bdud rtsi'i thigs pa'', in Gsung 'bum kun bzang dpal ldan, vol. 1 (Lama Ngodru and Sherab Demy, 1982), 5–746, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23946_57D951. For a bilingual version of the text with English translation by Padmakara, see this site: https://bodhicitta.tsadra.org/index.php/Books/The_Nectar_of_Manjushri%27s_Speech/Sabche.</ref> Another student, Jigme Chöphel Zangpo (འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་དཔལ་བཟང་པོ་, nineteenth century), received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' nine times from Patrul and compiled the notes from him on the first three and the tenth chapters. Minyak Kunzang Sonam (མི་ཉག་ཀུན་བཟང་བསོད་ནམས་, 1823–1905), a scholar from the Geluk tradition, also received teachings on the text nine times from Patrul and composed an extensive commentary.<ref>See Minyak Kunzang Sonam, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel bshad rgyal sras rgya mtsho'i yon tan rin po che mi zad 'jo ba'i bum bzang'', in ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang'' (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990), 1–584, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW15659.</ref>

A student of Patrul who left a significant legacy for the Nyingma tradition was Ju Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (འཇུ་མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912), probably Tibet's greatest polymath. Mipham wrote on a wide range of subjects and left behind an astounding thirty-two volumes covering almost all sciences known to him. His writings on Buddhist philosophy and practice, which contain the Nyingma understanding of Buddhist topics, form the core curriculum for scholastic study and meditation practice in the Nyingma tradition today. ''The Ketaka Gem'' (''ནོར་བུ་ཀེ་ཏ་ཀ་''), his commentary on the ninth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', which he wrote after he received teachings on it from Patrul, is a good example of his philosophical writing.<ref>See Mipham Gyatso, ''Spyod 'jug sher 'grel ke ta ka'' (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4996.</ref> While the text triggered polemical exchanges between him and his opponents, today it is widely read among followers of the Nyingma school. Mipham wrote a great deal on relative and ultimate bodhicitta in a number of his works in the context of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, including a commentary on Mañjuśrīmitra's ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta''.<ref>Mipham Gyatso, ''Byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun gyi mchan 'grel de kho na nyid gsal ba'i sgron me'', in Mi pham rgya mtsho'i gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Gangs can rig gzhung dpe rnying myur skyobs lhan tshogs, 2007), 23:63-95. See also https://online.adarshah.org/index.html?kdb=mipam&sutra=MP203&page=13-3-1ahttps://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun.</ref> The legacies of Patrul and Mipham continued through the works of their students and followers, who vigorously promoted the study and practice of bodhicitta.

The Kham region of Tibet experienced a remarkable renaissance of the Nyingma tradition during the era of the great masters of Patrul and Mipham. This renaissance, which involved many eminent figures, saw a massive burst of new scholarship and ''terma'' revelation as well as the compilation, classification, and reproduction of existing Nyingma literature. Simultaneously, there was also a revitalization of Nyingma monasticism and the development of scholastic activity through the new culture of ''shedra'' exegetical seminaries, which became vibrant centers of scholarship. The literary and institutional legacies left by this renaissance changed the trajectory of the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school.

It was ultimately the Rime movement led by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (འཇམ་དབྱངས་མཁྱེན་བརྩེའི་དབང་པོ་, 1820–1892), Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (འཇམ་མགོན་ཀོང་སྤྲུལ་བློ་གྲོས་མཐའ་ཡས་, 1813–1899), Patrul Rinpoche, and Mipham that had a significant impact on wider Buddhist study and practice. This movement came into being primarily to counteract the sectarian disputes and violence that frequently occurred between Tibetan Buddhist schools. Historical examples of violent sectarian conflicts include clashes between the Sakyapas and Drigungpas (thirteenth–fourteenth centuries), Kagyupas and Gelukpas (seventeenth century), and Nyingma and Geluk schools (eighteenth century). Moreover, the Gelukpa school with the political support of the Gaden Phodrang government had been extending their influence since the fifteenth century, leading to widespread religious prejudice and proselytization. In addition, the Rime masters had reservations about Gelukpa scholasticism, which was codified in individual college textbooks and professed through the eristic study of formulaic argumentation. Mipham particularly expressed such concern about the rigidity, verbosity, and aridity of Gelukpa scholasticism, which was founded on sophistic logic.

To stem this scholastic trend and the doctrinal controversies arising from partisan interpretations, the Rime teachers promoted the reorientation of religious study toward the Indian original texts and an eclectic approach to studying the essential teachings of all Tibetan traditions regardless of one's religious affiliation. This led to a restructuring of scholarly curricula in the ''shedra'' exegetical colleges and fostered some degree of interdenominational learning and teaching by the beginning of the twentieth century. To this effect, Khenpo Zhenga, or Zhenphen Chökyi Nangwa (གཞན་ཕན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྣང་བ་, 1871–1927), an ecumenical abbot of the ''shedra'' in Dzongsar, compiled commentaries on thirteen great classic Indian treatises, including ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yoga'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', which discuss bodhicitta and the bodhisattva path in detail. His commentaries, which are based on the writings by the Indian masters, came to be widely used as the core curriculum in the rising ''shedra'' colleges affiliated with the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya schools.

The study and practice of bodhicitta were flourishing in the scholastic and meditation centers when the People’s Liberation Army swept across Tibet. This was followed by the tragic Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). These events no doubt disrupted the scholarly pursuit of bodhicitta and gave ample opportunities for its practitioners to put it into practice in the face of overwhelming challenges and hardship. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, like in most other Tibetan Buddhist schools, recovered and reached new heights in large centers such as Namdroling Monastery in India and Larung Gar and Yachen in Tibet. These institutions attracted unprecedented numbers of students from Tibet and around the world, all of whom came to pursue Buddhist education through modernized monastic college programs that typically lasted nine years and covered topics such as bodhicitta in comprehensive detail.

=== The Kadam School ===
The Kadam school, which is considered the earliest of the ''sarma'', or new, schools, came to be known as a leading promoter of teachings on bodhicitta. Atiśa Dīpaṃkara is said to have combined in his teachings and practice both the Profound View and Vast Conduct traditions—the two main transmissions of Mahāyāna teachings in general and bodhicitta in particular. He received these transmissions from numerous masters such as Dharmarakṣita, Bodhibhadra, Dharmakīrti, Maitrīyogi, and Nāropa, and passed them down to numerous students, including his three main students—Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, who founded Reting Monastery, Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. The Kadam tradition became formalized as a tradition of seven divinity-dharmas (''བཀའ་གདམས་ལྷ་ཆོས་བདུན་ལྡན་''), which include Śākyamuni, Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, and Acala as four deities and the corpuses of Vinaya, Sūtra, and Abhidharma as the three dharmas.

The founding fathers of Kadam were succeeded by many influential masters, chief among whom were the aforementioned "three Kadam brothers"—Potowa Rinchen Sal, Chengawa Tsultrim Bar, and Phuchungwa Shönu Gyaltsen. As the Kadam tradition evolved, it also saw the development of two distinct lines of practice, especially in terms of the content and style of its teachings. Firstly, the Kadam tradition became a champion of the Lamrim, or stages of path, tradition. The Lamrim tradition revolved around Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', which covered the paths for persons of inferior, middling, and superior capacities. This was supplemented by the six treatises of Kadam (''བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་''), which they adopted as their core scriptural sources. They included Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'', Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''Compendium of Training'', Āryaśūra's ''Garland of Birth Stories'' (''Jātakamāla''),<ref>Āryaśūra, ''Jātakamāla'', in Derge Tengyur D4150, vol. 168, skyes rab, hu, 1b1-135a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4150.</ref> and ''The Collection of Aphorisms'' (''Udānavarga''),<ref>''Udānavarga'' (''Ched du brjod pa'i tshoms''), in Derge Kangyur D326, vol. 72, mdo sde, sa 209a1–253a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0326.</ref> attributed to the historical Buddha. These texts became the main treatises for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Kadam tradition.

Among the early Tibetan ''lamrim'' texts were Potowa's ''Blue Booklet'' (བེའུ་བུམ་སྔོན་མོ།), works by Gönpawa Wangchuk Gyaltsen (དགོན་པ་བ་དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1016–1082) that drew directly from Atiśa's teachings, and texts by Ngok Lekpai Sherap that were based on the teachings of Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung. Stressing the importance of bodhicitta, Potowa, as quoted by Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361), states in ''The Blue Booklet'',
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Knowing them to be just like oneself,
Treat everyone with love and compassion.
By doing so, if one upholds bodhicitta,
Therein lies each and every dharma.<ref>བདག་ཅི་འདྲ་བ་དེ་འདྲར་ཤེས་པས། །ཀུན་ལ་བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་འཇུག་བྱ། །དེས་བསྐྱེད་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དང་ལྡན་ན། །དེ་ལ་ཆོས་རྣམས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀུན་གནས། ། Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, ''Bka' gdams kyi man ngag be'u bum sngon mo'i rtsa 'grel (Lhasa, Sertsu Nangten Penying Tsholdu Chokdrikhang, 2016), 24, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG25234.</ref>
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Potowa also composed ''The Teaching in Similes'' (དཔེ་ཆོས།), which contains similes, sayings, and stories from folk culture employed to illustrate the points related to the spiritual path. Around the same time, a set of literary compositions on the spiritual path closely related to the ''lamrim'' called ''tenrim'' (བསྟན་རིམ་), or stages of the doctrine, developed. ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Doctrine'' (བསྟན་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ།) by Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne (གྲོ་ལུང་པ་བློ་གྲོས་འབྱུང་གནས་, eleventh century) is perhaps the earliest one.<ref>See Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne, ''Bstan rim chen mo'' (Delhi: Norbu Kharphigsi Publications, 2014), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG24221.</ref> These books, in contrast to works in the ''lamrim'' genre which lay out the path for the persons of three capacities, discuss the different teachings in the Buddhist system, taking an inclusive and cohesive approach in order to reconcile the diverse teachings. Some scholars understood the terms ''lamrim'' and ''tenrim'' to be synonyms, but others differentiated the two and considered ''tenrim'' to refer to public discourses and ''lamrim'' to refer to personalized private instructions.

Whatever the case, the approach of seeing all teachings as noncontradictory, understanding all scriptures as pith instructions, fathoming the intent of the Buddha easily, and absolving evil actions spontaneously are seen as the four special qualities of the Kadam tradition. With such an open and inclusive approach, the Kadam master generally embraced all Buddhist teachings. Yet, this did not entail a monotonous and homogenous system. Based on their specializations, the adherents of the Kadam school became divided into the tradition of scriptures (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་པ་) associated with Potowa and the tradition of oral and didactic pith instructions (བཀའ་གདམས་མན་ངག་པ་) associated with Chengawa, the latter further divided by some into essential instructions and oral instructions. In the cases of both the scriptural and instructional traditions, there were numerous other methods, styles, and techniques for presenting the teachings. Potowa favored approaching the teachings through mindfulness of the Buddha, Puchungwa through dependent origination, and Chengawa through the four noble truths. Within a couple generations of its diffusion, the Lamrim tradition of the Kadam school generated numerous commentaries and instructional texts while developing diverse approaches and styles for practicing the ''lamrim'' teachings.

The second most important component of Kadam study and practice was the tradition of Mind Training, or Lojong. Atiśa received various texts and techniques for mind training from his Indian teachers and passed them on to his main disciples, who in turn passed them on to their disciples. The pith instructions for mind training were mostly transmitted as secret teachings (ལྐོག་ཆོས་) in private sessions. Potowa passed down the ''lojong'' transmissions to Sharawa Yönten Drak (ཤ་ར་ཡོན་ཏན་གྲགས་, 1070–1141), whose disciple Tumtön Lodrö Drak (གཏུམ་སྟོན་བློ་གྲོས་གྲགས་, ca. 1106–1166) founded the famous Kadam center of Narthang in 1153, and to Langri Thangpa (གླང་རི་ཐང་པ་, 1054–1123), who composed ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' (''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'').<ref>See Langri Thangpa, ''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'', in Blo sbyong nyer mkho phyogs bsgrigs, ed. Ngag dbang sbyin pa and Cha ris skal bzang thogs med (Kan su: Kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 172–73, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW25275_54767F.</ref> Sharawa passed the instructions on to Chekawa Yeshe Dorje ('Chad kha ba ye shes rdo rje, 1101–1175), who established Cheka Monastery and composed the famous ''Seven-Point Mind Training'' (''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'').<ref>See Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, ''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'i rtsa tshig sogs'', Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1NLM668.</ref> The transmission of ''lojong'' from Chekawa branched into northern and southern traditions and spread widely, with the cultivation of ultimate and relative bodhicitta as its core.

As the Kadam tradition evolved with its wealth of ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' teachings, its main historical records, teachings, and practices were compiled in ''The Book of Kadam'' (''བཀའ་གདམས་གླེགས་བམ་བཏུས་པའི་ཆོས་སྐོར་'').<ref>See Thupten Jinpa, ed., ''Bka' gdams glegs bam las btus pa'i chos skor'' (Delhi: Bod gyi gtsug lag zhib dpyod khang, 2005), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12514. For an English translation, see Thubten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008).</ref> With ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' by Atiśa at its core, the book contains sections called "Father Teachings," which are composed of questions and answers between Atiśa and Dromtönpa, and "Son Teachings," made up of questions and answers between Atiśa and Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. In the chapter discussing how all problems lie in the sole point of self-attachment—an important topic of meditation in the Lojong tradition—Atiśa asks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text="In that case, do you understand the mind's true mode of being?"

"Yes, I do," replied Drom.

Atiśa: "So what need is there of desires for this mind; cultivate contentment. Even though you perceive many sentient beings, all of them are your fathers and mothers who have taken joy in your overcoming of misfortune and [attainment] of good fortune. They have cleaned your runny nose with their mouths, your excrement with their hands, have nurtured you with kingdoms and with gifts, and some, despite having been abandoned [by us], have cared for us again. It is due to the kindness of the teacher that positive qualities are revealed. In general, it is the teacher who has done you the great kindness of granting you your ultimate aim. And it is your parents who are the source of great kindness granting you joy and happiness in this life. You should therefore recognize their kindness and repay their kindness.

"For this, serve the teacher through respectful veneration and meditative practice, and toward your parents, in order to repay their kindness, cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable joy when they are happy, and immeasurable equanimity that is free of discriminating thoughts of near and distant. For the benefit of all—all your mothers—strive as much as possible to attain buddhahood and, discarding lingering doubts, cherish your persistence in meditative practice. Abandoning all obstacles such as sloth, mental dullness, and laziness, endeavor with joyful perseverance.

"Drom, although one speaks of "recognizing the kindness of others and repaying it," it all seems to pertain to the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, such as loving-kindness and compassion; the stabilization of the awakening mind; its enhancement from high to ever higher levels; and the definite steering of one's parents with the paddles of [the two awakening minds,] aspirational and engaging."<ref>Thunten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 125–26.</ref>
}}
These passages and the many texts and teachings in the Lamrim and Lojong traditions of the Kadam school sufficiently demonstrate how bodhicitta forms the bedrock of the Kadam tradition and how the school came to champion its propagation. We also see the gradual development of the structures and procedures for practice, such as the seven instructions of cause and effect.

In addition to its strong practical orientation, the theoretical and philosophical study of bodhicitta also flourished within the Kadam school. This took place mainly through the scholastic education at Sangpu Neutok, the monastic college which was founded by Ngok Lekpai Sherab in 1072 and which rose to be a prominent Kadam center of learning some fifty years after its founding. At its peak, Sangpu Neutok was the most well-known center for scholastic education in Tibet, with alumni that included the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (དུས་གསུམ་མཁྱེན་པ་, 1110–1193), Longchenpa Drime Özer (ཀློང་ཆེན་པ་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (ཙོང་ཁ་པ་བློ་བཟང་གྲགས་པ་, 1357–1419), and Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (རོང་སྟོན་ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་རིག་, 1367–1449), who went to Sangpu for debate sessions. Some forty-five great masters such as Ngok Loden Sherab (རྔོག་བློ་ལྡན་ཤེས་རབ་, 1059–1109), Chapa Chökyi Senge (ཕྱ་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སེང་གེ་, 1109–1169), Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo (ཕག་མོ་གྲུ་པ་རྡོ་རྗེ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1110–1170), Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), Patsab Nyima Drakpa (པ་ཚབ་ཉི་མ་གྲགས་པ་, twelfth century) worked at Sangpu, making it a wonderful enclave of scholarship. Bodhicitta was rigorously studied through lectures, debates, and writing on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', and many other texts.

Another Kadam center where both the theoretical study and practical application of the teachings flourished and where a combination of both the tradition of scriptures and oral instructions thrived was Narthang, located in the Tsang region. Narthang produced great scholars such as Chim Namkha Drak (མཆིམས་ནམ་མཁའ་གྲགས་, 1210–1285), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་, 1219–1299), and Chomden Rikpai Raldri (བཅོམ་ལྡན་རིག་པའི་རལ་གྲི་, 1297–1305), who wrote commentaries on texts discussing bodhicitta and also composed practice manuals for its cultivation. Scholarship on bodhicitta flourished in the Kadam tradition. Some two dozen works, including full commentaries and short treatises, were written on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' alone by authors including Gyamar Jangchub Drak (རྒྱ་དམར་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་གྲགས་, eleventh–twelfth century), Chapa Chökyi Senge, Tsangnakpa Tsöndru Senge (གཙང་ནག་པ་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེང་གེ་, twelfth century), Drotön Dutsi Drak (གྲོ་སྟོན་བདུད་རྩི་གྲགས་, 1153–1232), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, Lodöe Tsungme (བློ་གྲོས་མཚུངས་མེད་, thirteenth century), and Kyitön Drakpa Gyaltsen (སྐྱི་སྟོན་གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, thirteenth century).

An outstanding Kadam luminary of his time was Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཐོགས་མེད་བཟང་པོ་, 1295–1369) of Ngulchu, particularly in terms of teaching and practicing bodhicitta. After studying in Sakya, Bodong, and Shalu Monasteries, Tokme Zangpo composed commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>See, for example, Gyalse Tokme Zangpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel pa legs bshad rgya mtsho'' (Them bu: Kun bzang stobs rgyas, 1975), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12289.</ref> and ''The Seven-Point Mind Training'',<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Commentary on the Seven Points of Mind Training'', by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (Lotsawa House, 2018), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/gyalse-thogme-zangpo/commentary-on-seven-points-mind-training.</ref> but his most significant contribution was ''The Thirty-Seven Bodhisattva Practices'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma''),<ref>See Tokme Zangpo, ''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'' (Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1988), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN15679.</ref> which today ranks among the most popular and influential texts for the study and practice of the path of the bodhisattva. Through these centers and masters, the study and practice of bodhicitta spread widely among the followers of the Kadam school.

The old Kadam tradition gradually declined in the fourteenth century but found a new manifestation in the new Gandenpa school of Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa. An influential monk, literary star, and master meditator, Tsongkhapa gave fresh life to the Kadam school but also departed from some of its old philosophical positions. He composed ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment'' (''ལམ་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ་''),<ref>Tsongkhapa, ''Lam rim chen mo'', in Gsung 'bum tsong kha pa (Zhol) (New Delhi: Mongolian Lama Guru Deva, 1978–1979), 13:39–1084, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW635_093BB6.</ref> a medium-length work on the ''lamrim'' (''ལམ་རིམ་འབྲིང་པོ་''), and a condensed work on the ''lamrim'' called ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'' (''ལམ་གཙོ་རྣམ་གསུམ་'').<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'', by Je Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (Lotsawa House, 2006, rev. 2012), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/bo/tibetan-masters/tsongkhapa/three-principal-aspects.</ref> He also composed works on ''lojong'', presenting a synthesized and structured theory as well as procedures for practice. By then, the old Kadam school declined as its teachings were incorporated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly the new Geluk school, which emerged as a reformed version of the Kadam school to carry on its legacies.

Toward the end of Tsongkhapa's life, the main seat of Ganden Monastery was established, followed soon by the founding of Sera and Drepung. These large monastic centers housed thousands of monks and carried out the rigorous study of bodhicitta in the context of their specific college curriculum (''ཡིག་ཆ་''). The authors of the ''yigcha'' such as Sonam Drakpa (བསོད་ནམས་གྲགས་པ་, 1478–1554), Jamyang Zhepa (འཇམ་དབྱངས་བཞད་པ་, 1648–1721), and Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (རྗེ་བཙུན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1469–1544) presented the definition, divisions, and benefits of bodhicitta during their deliberations on various Buddhist philosophical and moral topics. In fact, bodhicitta is the first of the seventy topics they studied as part of their long course on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. However, these monasteries did not include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' or ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' in their curriculum and study of these texts was carried out separately outside of the monastic curriculum.

Besides the authors of the curriculum, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the new Geluk school was also promoted by the successive Dalai Lamas, Paṇchen Lamas, and Ganden Tripas, as well as by the abbots and other geshes of the three main seats (Ganden, Sera, and Drepung) and the two tantric colleges. The First Dalai Lama, Gedun Drup (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་, 1391–1474), and the First Paṇchen Lama, Lobzang Chökyi Gyaltsen (བློ་བཟང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1570–1662), both wrote on ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' practices. Other inspirational Geluk figures such as Changkya Rolpai Dorje (ལྕང་སྐྱ་རོལ་པའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1717–1786) and Könchok Tenpai Drönme (དཀོན་མཆོག་བསྟན་པའི་སྒྲོན་མེ་, 1762–1823) wrote specific works on the cultivation of bodhicitta. Könchok Tenpai Drönme, for example, presents instructions on how to first cultivate relative bodhicitta, then ultimate bodhicitta, and finally how the two work together. In his instructions for practicing the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, he pretends to be in a debate with selfishness, which he refutes using different arguments.

The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Geluk school, like all other traditions in Tibet, went through tumultuous changes beginning in the middle of the twentieth century with the arrival of the People's Liberation Army and continuing through the Cultural Revolution. For over three decades, the study of bodhicitta in the Geluk school went through its darkest chapter, though many masters did excel in the practice of bodhicitta in the face of severe atrocities.

The bodhicitta teachings were soon revived in India through the establishment of monastic centers for education and practice by Tibetans who had fled Tibet following the upheavals of the 1960s and 70s. These efforts were crowned by the enthusiasm and commitment of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as a global paragon of wisdom and compassion. With dozens of books in multiple languages and public sermons attended by tens of thousands of people, he and his students took the teachings of bodhicitta to an unprecedented level by spreading the teachings across the globe. At the same time, the Geluk tradition also actively adopted the transmission of bodhicitta teachings that were passed down from Patrul Rinpoche. These came via two main lines: through Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen (ཁུ་ནུ་བླ་མ་བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1894?–1977) to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, and through Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823–1905), who wrote an extensive commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' based on Patrul's teachings.

=== The Kagyu School ===
The teachings on bodhicitta coming from the Kadam school were also passed down through the Marpa Kagyu school. The focus of Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012–1097) and his disciple Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040–1123) remained on the esoteric tantric teachings that Marpa brought from India, having received them from teachers such as Nāropa and Maitrīpa. However, Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (སྒམ་པོ་པ་བསོད་ནམས་རིན་ཆེན་, 1079–1153), the third founding father of the Kagyu tradition from the Dakpo region of Tibet, combined the esoteric tantric teachings he received from Milarepa with the Kadam teachings he had received before becoming Milarepa's disciple.<ref>The school later took its new name Dakpo Kagyu after him.</ref> Thus, we see an effective pairing of the relative bodhicitta teachings from the Kadam tradition with the teachings on ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric texts and ''mahāmudrā'' transmission.

This synthesis by Gampopa is best seen in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (''དམ་ཆོས་ཡིད་བཞིན་ནོར་བུ་ཐར་པ་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་རྒྱན་''), which condenses the entire path to buddhahood into six topics, which he puts in the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The buddha-nature is the cause,
Precious and supreme human body, the support,
The virtuous master is the agent,
And his instructions, the expedient technique.
The result is the body of the perfect Buddha,
Who engages in actions for the world with no thought.<ref>རྒྱུ་ནི་བདེ་གཤེགས་སྙིང་པོ་སྟེ། །རྟེན་ནི་མི་ལུས་རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག །རྐྱེན་ནི་དགེ་བའི་བཤེས་གཉེན་ཡིན། །ཐབས་ནི་དེ་ཡི་གདམས་ངག་སྟེ། །འབྲས་བུ་རྫོགས་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྐུ། །ཕྲིན་ལས་རྟོག་མེད་འགྲོ་དོན་མཛད། ། Gampopa Sonam Rinchen, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'' (Thimphu: KMT, 2005), 3.</ref>
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Gampopa discusses both relative and ultimate bodhicitta in some detail in this work, stating concisely that the objects of relative bodhicitta are the state of enlightenment and sentient beings, and that ultimate bodhicitta is the realization of emptiness endowed with compassion that is clear, unperturbed, and free from mental elaborations.<ref>Gampopa, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'', 133 and 137.</ref> He then presents the procedures to obtain the bodhisattva vow, the precepts to follow, the definition and types of bodhicitta, and a detailed treatment of the six perfections as applied bodhicitta. This work would remain a core text for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Dakpo Kagyu tradition.

The four chief disciples of Gampopa started the four Kagyu schools and spread the teachings on bodhicitta. They include the aforementioned Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, who founded the Pakdru Kagyu; Barompa Darma Wangchuk (འབའ་རོམ་པ་དར་མ་དབང་ཕྱུག་, 1127–1199/1200), who established the Barom Kagyu; the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, who established the Karma Kagyu; and Zhang Yudrakpa (ཞང་གཡུ་བྲག་པ་, 1123–1193), who established the Tselpa Kagyu. Pakmodrupa is said to have viewed himself as a servant of all sentient beings and to have lived a life committed to strict morality and service to others. He wrote several works on bodhicitta, including a commentary on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows''<ref>Phakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, ''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa bzhugs pa'i dbu phyogs'', in Gsung 'bum phag mo gru pa rdo rje rgyal po (bris ma), (ga), 27–48, Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG15061_A5D6A7.</ref> and a treatise entitled ''Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva'', not to be confused with Śāntideva's work, although they have the same title in Tibetan. In another text called ''The Great Pearl Garland'' (''སེམས་བསྐྱེད་མུ་ཏིག་ཕྲེང་ཆེན་''), he wrote in praise of bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Other intentions and precepts are like well-cooked food but thoughts and precepts concerning bodhicitta are like the celestial cake with a hundred tastes. The mass of other merits is like a ruler from a castle, while bodhicitta is like the universal monarch ruling over all gods and men. The merit accrued from other virtues is like the light of a firefly, while the merit of bodhicitta is like the blazing disc of the sun.<ref>Pakmodrupa, ''Sems bskyed mu tig phreng chen'', in Gsung 'bum rdo rje rgyal po (N.p: N.p, 1998), 1:571–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23860_764630.</ref>
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Pakmodrupa's eight chief disciples took the teachings further by founding eight subschools of the Pakdru Kagyu. Among them are figures such as Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (འཇིག་རྟེན་མགོན་པོ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1143–1217), who founded the Drikung Kagyu, Lingrepa Pema Dorje (གླིང་རས་པ་པདྨ་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1128–1188), whose disciple Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (གཙང་པ་རྒྱ་རས་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1161–1211) founded the Drukpa Kagyu, and Taklungtangpa Tashi Pal (སྟག་ལུང་ཐང་པ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་དཔལ་, 1142–1209/1210). Jikten Gönpo established Drikung Thil, had a large following, and also wrote many texts on the cultivation of bodhicitta. ''The Experiential Hymns on the Fivefold Mahāmudrā'' (''ཕྱག་རྒྱ་ཆེན་པོ་ལྔ་ལྡན་གྱི་རྟོགས་པའི་མགུར་'') is perhaps the most well-known work. Only five verses, it starts with the following:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If the steed of love and compassion
Does not run for the benefit of others,
It will not be rewarded in the assembly of gods and humans.
Attend, therefore, to the preliminaries.<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེའི་རྟ་ཕོ་ལ། །གཞན་ཕན་གི་དཀྱུས་ཐོག་མ་བཅད་ན། །ཁྲོམ་ལྷ་མིའི་འོར་ཆེ་མི་འབྱུང་བས། །སེམས་སྔོན་འགྲོ་འདི་ལ་ནན་ཏན་མཛོད།།. See Karma Phuntsho, trans., ''Jikten Sumgön's Fivefold Path of Mahāmudrā'' (''Phyag rgya chen po lnga ldan rtogs pa'i mgur''), Buddha-Nature: A Tsadra Foundation Project, recent essays, posted October 2021, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Recent_Essays/Post-50.</ref>
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Like Jikten Gönpo, Tsangpa Gyare, the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu, became a highly influential Kagyu master and spread the teachings on bodhicitta widely. He is said to have sent many waves of students across the Himalayas so that the Drukpa Kagyu teachings could spread across vast distances—as far as a vulture can fly in eighteen days. It has been said in a highly exaggerated claim that half of humanity are followers of the Drukpa Kagyu tradition, half of them paupers, and half of the paupers accomplished saints. The upper Drukpas, went another panegyrical claim, are as many as stars in the sky, the lower Drukpas are as many as the particles of dust on the earth, and the middle Drukpa tradition has 2500 leading hierarchs who are entitled to parasols over their head. No doubt, the teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread widely through the works of Tsangpa Gyare and his followers. Tsangpa Gyare remarked in one of his pieces of advice:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If bodhicitta is not cultivated, all meritorious activities, like an offering of flour to demons will throw one to the currents of worldly concerns.<ref>བྱང་སེམས་རྒྱུད་ལ་མ་སྐྱེས་ན། །བསོད་ནམས་བདུད་ཀྱི་ཕྱེ་གཏོར་འདིས། །ཆོས་བརྒྱད་ཆུ་ལ་བསྐུར་ཉེན་གདའ། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''<i>'</i>Gro mgon rin po che's gsung mgur gyi rim pa'', in 'Gro ba’i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23782_A9B6DF.</ref>
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"If one had compassion like a shepherd," he said, "one would care for both the good and bad."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེ་ལུག་རྫི་འདྲ་ན་བཟང་ངན་མེད་པར་བསྐྱང་སྟེ་མཆི། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''Tsogs chos mno ‘khor ma che ba'', in 'Gro ba'i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 9b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN2232_A2AF3F.</ref>

A leading disciple of Gampopa was Dusum Khyenpa, who established a lineage that became highly influential in Tibetan religion and politics. He was later recognized as the First Karmapa. Dusum Khyenpa founded Tsurphu Monastery in Tibet and had a great following. He taught that Dharma is about benefiting sentient beings and emphasized the importance of loving-kindness and compassion as part of the Mahāyāna path. But it was his successors who excelled in the scholarship on bodhicitta theory and practice. The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (ཀརྨ་པཀྵི་, 1204–1283), mentioned bodhicitta in his writings, but Rangjung Dorje (རང་བྱུང་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1284–1339 ), the Third Karmapa, wrote many important works on ultimate bodhicitta. These included books on the perfection of wisdom, which covered the empty aspect of ultimate bodhicitta, and books on buddha-nature, which covered the luminous aspect of ultimate bodhicitta.

Among the seventeen Karmapas who have become heads of the Kamtsang Kagyu school so far, the Eighth Karmapa, Mikyö Dorje, wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' in which he discusses bodhicitta. He also composed many other short manuals and instructions for bodhicitta practice such as ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang sems kyi khrid'', In Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa: 2004), 19:383–98, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_5E5C5A.</ref> ''Cultivation of Bodhicitta in One Night'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang chub kyi sems sgom tshul zhag gcig ma'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:331–34, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_DE0419.</ref> and ''Instructions for Mind Training''.<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Blo sbyong gi khrid'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:281–96, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_C222BF.</ref> In ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'', he presents guidance on how to generate bodhicitta using a dialogue between Maitreya and Maitrīyogi as the main text. In it, he also gives instructions on how to combine the cultivation of bodhicitta with breathing. Mikyö Dorje also wrote the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka, Cittamātra, and Vajrayāna traditions.

Another major author on bodhicitta belonging to the Kamtshang Kagyu subschool was Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (དཔའ་བོ་གཙུག་ལག་ཕྲེང་བ་, 1504–1564), a historian and commentator on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Besides his commentary on this classical text on bodhicitta, he also authored liturgies for taking the bodhisattva vows for both relative and ultimate bodhicitta and instructions on how to turn both positive and negative life experiences into opportunities for mind training.

The sixteenth century saw another major Kagyu figure belonging to the Drukpa Kagyu subschool. Pema Karpo (པདྨ་དཀར་པོ་, 1527–1592), the Fourth Drukchen of the Drukpa Kagyu school, wrote commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>Pema Karpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'bru 'grel dbu ma'i lam gyi sgron ma'' (Nepal: Shree Gautam Buddha Vihara, 2017), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/a-lamp-for-the-middle-way/.</ref> and ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. He also composed a treatise on the three vows, the second chapter of which deals with the bodhisattva vow and precepts. He also wrote texts related to the lamrim stages of the path to enlightenment and many works on ''mahāmudrā'', which deal with the ultimate form of bodhicitta.

In the nineteenth century, a major Kagyu figure to champion all traditions of Tibetan Buddhist teachings, including the study and practice of bodhicitta, was Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (1813–1899). As a leading promoter of the Rime ecumenical movement in eastern Tibet alongside his teacher and colleague Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892), Kongtrul produced the five great treasuries, including The Treasury of Kagyu Tantras (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད་སྔགས་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Revealed Treasures (རིན་ཆེན་གཏེར་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Instructions (གདམས་ངག་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Knowledge (ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་ཁྱབ་མཛོད་), and The Treasury of Extensive Teachings (རྒྱ་ཆེན་བཀའ་མཛོད་). While the first three are mainly compilations of existing teachings, Kongtrul added many supplements to enrich the collections. In the Treasury of Instructions, he put together the rare and important meditation instructions of all major Tibetan Buddhist transmissions and also composed many instructions and liturgies himself. A good example of this is his composition of the liturgy to take the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka tradition as received via Śāntideva. The two last collections mainly consist of his own encyclopedic writings and include his commentary on Chekawa Yeshe Dorje's ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' and his ''Aspirational Prayer for Mind Training''.

The last great Kagyupa/Nyingmapa promoter of bodhicitta in India in the twentieth century was Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, although he was also more aligned to the Rime ecumenical tradition than a specific sect. Born in North India with deep knowledge of its languages and cultures, and trained in Tibet before Buddhism's decline there, Khunu Rinpoche was uniquely positioned to preserve and transmit bodhicitta teachings during Tibet's takeover by the People's Liberation Army and the subsequent refugee exodus. At such a critical moment, Khunu Rinpoche passed on the profound teachings on bodhicitta to his students, the most eminent among them being the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as the unparalleled paragon of bodhicitta study and practice in modern times. Khunu Rinpoche also composed his very deep and poetic treatise on bodhicitta entitled ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta''.<ref>See Khunu Lama, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, n.d), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ369499.</ref>

Around the same time, another prominent Kagyu master to promote bodhicitta through his writings was Gedun Rinchen (དགེ་འདུན་རིན་ཆེན་, 1926–1997), the sixty-ninth Je Khenpo, or Chief Abbot, of Bhutan. Gedun Rinchen wrote commentaries on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', notes on ''The Way of the Bodisattva'', and several short works on the cultivation of both relative and ultimate bodhicitta. He is perhaps the first Bhutanese author to also write extensively on topics related to bodhicitta, although several other Bhutanese would do so in the twenty-first century. Today, traditional scholarship on bodhicitta among the Kagyu school thrives with an unprecedented number of scholars and masters writing and teaching both in the Himalayan Buddhist areas and in the diaspora.

=== The Sakya School ===
The Sakya school was founded by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102) with the establishment of Sakya center in the Tsang region of Tibet in 1073. In subsequent generations, the school evolved to become renowned for their scholarship and their dedicated practice of the Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on the Path and Result in particular. This was also true with regard to their study and practice of bodhicitta. According to the tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (ས་ཆེན་ཀུན་དགའ་སྙིང་པོ་, 1092–1158), the son of Könchok Gyalpo and the first of the five eminent ancestors of Sakya, is said to have had a vision of Mañjuśrī in which he received the teachings known as ''Parting from the Four Attachments'' (''ཞེན་པ་བཞི་བྲལ་'').<ref>See Ngor pa dpon slob blo gter dbang po, ed., ''Zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Rgyud sde kun btus (glog klad par ma) (Kathmandu: Sachen International, Guru Lama, 2004), 23:727–30, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW27883_DDE525.</ref> The teaching went as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If you are attached to this life, you are not a true spiritual practitioner;
If you are attached to saṃsāra, you have no renunciation;
If you are attached to your own self-interest, you have no bodhicitta;
If there is grasping, you do not have the View.<ref>Rigpa Translations, trans., ''Instruction on Parting from the Four Attachments'', by Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (Lotsawa House, 2011), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/jetsun-drakpa-gyaltsen/parting-four-attachments.</ref>
}}
The third point on parting from the attachment to self-interest underscored the importance of the practice of bodhicitta and compassion in the Sakya spiritual practice. A generation after him, his son Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), who got trained at Sangpu Neutok under the illustrious scholar Chapa Chökyi Senge, carried on the scholarly tradition of Sakya and composed a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel pa'', in ''<i>'</i>Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung'', ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po (Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 68:20–209, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_A992FA.</ref> The younger son, Drakpa Gyaltsen (གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1147–1216), carried on the tradition and composed a summary of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum, reprinted from a set of Derge Parkhang woodblocks (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992-1993), 9:553–91, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_21D2B6.</ref> instructions on ''Parting from the Four Attachments'',<ref>See ''Rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan gyis mdzad pa'i zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Gdams ngag mdzod (Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1979–1981), 6:310–14, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20877_835B23.</ref> a manual for taking the refuge and bodhisattva vows,<ref>See ''Chos spyod rin chen phreng ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:511–46, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_BAE593.</ref> and an exegesis on ''The Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow''.<ref>See Sachen Kunga Nyingpo and Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa gsal bar ston pa shlo ka nyi shu pa'i rnam par bshad pa'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:547–604, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_4967BB.</ref>

The greatest scholar among the five sublime ancestors of Sakya, however, was Ngawang Kunga Gyaltsen, who is popularly known as Sakya Paṇḍita or Sakya Paṇchen (ས་སྐྱ་པཎྜི་ཏ་, 1182–1251). A scholar of exceptional caliber, Sakya Paṇḍita composed many original works, some of which discuss bodhicitta. These include ''Distinguishing the Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་གསུམ་རབ་དབྱེ་''),<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:1–96, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' (''ཐུབ་པའི་དགོངས་པ་རབ་ཏུ་གསལ་བ་''),<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:9–206, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> a liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow, and a collection of scriptural citations to substantiate the points related to bodhicitta.<ref>See ''Dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi cho ga'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:467–503, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_1F51EB and ''Byang chub kyi mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga'i lung sbyor'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:503–24, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_A6BF74.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita bestowed the bodhisattva vow according to the Middle Way tradition and followed this with teachings on ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' so that one's bodhicitta would not decrease but would increase. Yet, it was generally his critical and polemical discourses on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta that often attracted the greatest attention from scholars and readers. For instance, he argued that not all bodhisattva aspiration prayers would come true, for if they did, bodhisattvas would be constantly inflicted by the pain and suffering that they prayed would fall on them. However, he accepted the essential role that bodhicitta played in Buddhist soteriology. "If one mishandles the crux of bodhicitta, other dharma cannot make one fully enlightened,"<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་གནད་འཆུགས་ན། །ཆོས་གཞན་གྱིས་ནི་འཚང་མི་རྒྱ། ། ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:33, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> he argued. Furthermore, he writes,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If one has bodhicitta and skill in means,
Even if one indulges in the five sensory objects,
Such an act becomes an act of great virtue for a bodhisattva.
It is considered as sin by the hearers.<ref>འདོད་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་ལྔར་སྤྱོད་ཀྱང་། །ཐབས་མཁས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ལྡན་ན། །རྒྱལ་སྲས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ཆེན་ཡིན། །ཉན་ཐོས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་སྡིག་པར་གསུངས། ། See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref>
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In his ''Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' and the liturgy on the bodhisattva vow, he presents a brief historical account of the two main Mahāyāna traditions, a clear account of bodhicitta and its types, the ritual for receiving the bodhisattva vow, and the precepts that follow.<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita was succeeded by his nephew Chögyal Pakpa (ཆོས་རྒྱལ་འཕགས་པ་, 1235–1280), who followed his uncle to China and later became the court priest and tutor of Kubilai Khan. Chögyal Pakpa is said to have given the bodhicitta vow to large gatherings of 70,000 people during the Chumik convention in 1270 and to have also administered it to his Mongol disciples in the Yuan court.

The Sakya school, put in place by the five great masters, continued to grow through the works of many great figures on the Tibetan intellectual scene and the many monasteries and centers they founded. In the generation after Chögyal Pakpa, we see the rise of Butön Rinchen Drub (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་, 1290–1364), a Sakya scholar who became the head of Shalu Monastery and was also responsible for the compilation of the first Kangyur and Tengyur canons, today referred to as the Old Narthang Kangyur and Tengyur. Butön left behind a prodigious oeuvre that includes a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa byang chub kyi sems gsal bar byed pa zla ba'i 'od zer'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19:193–614, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_11394D.</ref> a summary of it,<ref>See ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19: 147–92, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_B2DED5.</ref> and a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''.<ref>''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rgya cher bshad pa lung gi snye ma'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy Of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 18:13–740, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_850C4C</ref> He also wrote one of the earliest and elaborate treatises on buddha-nature<ref>See, for example, ''Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 20:1–78, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_9E60DB.</ref> and numerous texts on Vajrayāna, covering ultimate bodhicitta.

An influential contemporary of Butön with a strong connection to the Sakya school was Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361). Initially associated with the Sakya school, Dölpopa undertook Kālacakra practice at Jomonang center, which eventually led him to his exposition of the philosophy of ''zhentong'' (''གཞན་སྟོང་''), or other emptiness. He wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rnam bshad mdo'i don bde blag tu rtogs pa'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon, 1990s?), 5:245–620, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_F64381.</ref> and original works such as ''The Mountain Dharma: Ocean of Definitive Meaning''<ref>See ''Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho zhes bya ba mthar thug thun mong ma yin pa'i man ngag'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 3:191–739, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_CC2A89.</ref> and ''The Fourth Council'',<ref>See ''Bka' bsdu bzhi pa'i don bstan rtsis chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 6:167–204, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_A37792.</ref> which elaborate an understanding of ultimate bodhicitta which is starkly different from the mainstream Sakya position. Dölpopa and his writings, which were carried on by the Jonang school, left behind a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist scholarship and practice.

In the fourteenth century, the Sakya school produced two outstanding scholars who both got trained at Sangpu Neutok. The first was Yaktön Sangye Pal (གཡག་སྟོན་སངས་རྒྱས་དཔལ་, 1350–1414), one of the six scholars known as the Six Ornaments of Tibet who wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Sher phyin mngon rtogs rgyan rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20485.</ref> but did not write any independent work on bodhicitta. The second scholar, Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (1367–1449), in contrast, wrote commentaries on major Indian treatises, including ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>Rongtön Sheja Kunrik, ''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rnam bshad tshig don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 3:3–774, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_96A5D5.</ref> and ''Introduction to the Middle Way''.<ref>''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don rnam nges'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 6:383–752, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_ACD85B.</ref> He also composed many short works on the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta, including a short text containing instructions on how to put ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into practice.<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug sgom rim rin chen rgyan phreng'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 1:508–10, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_876785.</ref>

Scholastic and polemical writings in the Sakya school reached unprecedented heights during the time of Rongtön's students, which included three of the most renowned scholars of their time—Taktsang Sherab Rinchen (སྟག་ཚང་ཤེས་རབ་རིན་ཆེན་, 1405–1477), Śākya Chokden (ཤཱཀྱ་མཆོག་ལྡན་, 1428–1507), and Gorampa Sönam Senge (གོ་རམས་པ་བསོད་ནམས་སེང་གེ་, 1429–1489). Taktsang Sherab Rinchen composed two works on the sciences and philosophical tenet systems and became a vocal critic of Tsongkhapa’s understanding of emptiness but did not write anything significant on bodhicitta. Śākya Chokden wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo dang mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel dang bcas pa'i lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don rgya mtsho'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 3:7–192, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_B4FF1A.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See ''Dbu ma 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don gnad kyi ṭī ka'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 5:291–486, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_D11306.</ref> and on Sakya Paṇḍita's ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'i le'u gsum pa rig 'dzin sdom pa'i skabs kyi 'bel gtam rnam par nges pa legs bshad gser gyi thur ma'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 7:7–244, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_E519EB.</ref> He also wrote a commentary on ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' by Langri Thangpa.<ref>Shākya Chokden, ''Blo sbyong tshig rkang brgyad pa'i rnam bshad don gsum rab tu gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 23:57–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_C4DA34.</ref> An independent thinker, Śākya Chokden introduced a new interpretation of buddha-nature, and his philosophical interpretation often differed from early Sakya masters. Because of this, his colleague Gorampa Sönam Senge, a sharp commentator and debater, became the main authority who established and carried on the Sakya philosophical tradition. Like his teacher Rongtön and his colleague Śākya Chokden, Gorampa wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i dka' ba'i gnas rnam par bshad pa yum don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 6:7–756, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_B6315B.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i dkyus kyi sa bcad pa dang gzhung so so'i dka' ba'i gnas la dpyad pa lta ba ngan sel'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 5:479–758, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_73D3D6.</ref> and also ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Sdom pa gsum gyi rab tu dbye ba'i rnam bshad rgyal ba'i gsung rab kyi dgongs pa gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 9:7–436, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_6EA702.</ref> Gorampa, Śākya Chokden, and Taktsang Sherab Rinchen would become known as Goshāktaksum, a trio of Sakya scholars who were among the harshest critics of Tsongkhapa and his Geluk school of thought.

Another prolific scholar around this time, though not directly related to Sakya, was Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal (བོ་དོང་པཎ་ཆེན་ཕྱོགས་ལས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་, 1376–1451). Chokle Namgyal left behind perhaps the largest collection of writings in Tibet, including commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Dpal de kho na nyid 'dus pa'i rgya mtsho chen po las phar phyin gyi dka' 'grel lung gi snye ma'', in Bo dong phyogs las rnam rgyal gyi gsung 'bum gsar rnyed skor, Par gzhi dang po (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 2:5–386, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD97485_3FDD00.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, Gsung 'bum phyogs las rnam rgyal (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1969–1981), vol. 17, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22103_5D3941.</ref> and an exegetical commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa rab tu gsal ba'', in 'Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung, ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po, Par gzhi dang po (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 73:221–560, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_6A3765.</ref> Scholarship on bodhicitta thrived with the rise of scholasticism from the fourteenth century. The theory of bodhicitta was discussed as the first of the seventy topics covered in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and the practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya tradition took place through the bodhisattva vow and through the instruction on ''Parting from the Four Attachments''. The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya school especially flourished and would culminate in the works of masters such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the Sakya figure who rose to be the leading advocate of the Rime ecumenical movement in the nineteenth century. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo bequeathed an enormous collection of writings that included many dozens of texts on bodhicitta. While he did not write commentaries on the main classical texts as other scholarly Sakya masters did, he composed many works concerning the practice of bodhicitta in the form of practical instructions, liturgies, and historical accounts.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings beyond Asia ==
Although some early cultural transmissions and interactions between Asia and the West occurred in ancient times, the proper transmission of Buddhism, particularly Mahāyāna teachings, to the West has taken place only since the early twentieth century. The general trend of globalization facilitated by the advancement in communication technology and the travel industry, political upheavals such as World War II and the Korean War, and the rise of communism in China, Vietnam, and Tibet all led to the migration of people from Mahāyāna countries in Asia to the West and to the spread of bodhicitta teachings. Western interest in Buddhist cultures was at first largely driven by cultural curiosity and academic interest, often motivated by a colonial agenda. However, this changed by the middle of the twentieth century with the significant growth of serious interest in Eastern spirituality, the introduction of Buddhist Studies in Western universities as part of religious and theological studies, and the rise of Dharma centers for practicing Buddhists.

The initial transmission of Mahāyāna teachings to the West began with the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning of the twentieth century. Figures such as Soyen Shaku (1860–1919) and Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966) brought Zen Buddhism and the Mahāyāna teachings from the Sino-Japanese tradition, while explorer-writers such as Evans Wentz (1878–1965) and Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969) introduced the West to Tibetan Buddhism. These were followed by a rising number of scholars in leading academic institutions, many of whom undertook sustained and in-depth study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the same time, numerous Asian Buddhist teachers from Tibet and East Asia started to establish Dharma centers, particularly in Europe and North America, where people with an interest in Buddhism took up their spiritual practice. Such a diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in general and teachings on bodhicitta in particular was further enhanced by the rising popularity of figures such as the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987).

One way to gauge the spread of the teachings on bodhicitta is to look at the transmission of the main classics on bodhicitta—namely, Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Compendium of Training''. Early translations of these two works, which gained much popularity in India soon after their composition in the eighth century, appeared in Tibetan and Chinese in the ninth and tenth centuries respectively. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' was initially translated into Tibetan by Kawa Paltsek in the eighth century and into Chinese by Tiān Xīzāi (d.1000) in 985 CE. The Tibetan translation went through subsequent revisions at least twice in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by Lotsāwa Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055) and Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) respectively. The text was then translated into Mongolian by Čosgi Odser (ཆོས་ཀྱི་འོད་ཟེར་, fl. 1305–1321) in 1305. ''The Compendium of Training'' was translated into Tibetan by Yeshe De (eighth century) and later revised by Ngok Loden Sherab. It was translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa in the first half of the eleventh century.

In the centuries after their composition, both of these texts appear to have spread quickly beyond North India to places such as Kashmir and Kathmandu. For example, the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project has found forty-one manuscripts related to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', including twelve palm-leaf manuscripts, and the earliest one (located in Kathmandu) dated to 1180 CE. The only existing Sanskrit manuscript of ''The Compendium of Training'', now housed in Cambridge University Library, was also acquired from Kathmandu.

Although these texts attracted much attention in India, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and other traditional Buddhist areas, their transmission to the West occurred only around the beginning of the twentieth century. The first publication of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the Western world took place in Russia in 1889 when Ivan P. Minayev reviewed and published the Sanskrit text using the manuscript brought by Brian Houghton Hodgson from Kathmandu.<ref>I. P. Minayev, "La doctrine du salut dans le Bouddhisme posterieur," ''Zapiski'', no. 4 (1889).</ref> Similarly, ''The Compendium of Training'' was first published through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902 by Cecil Bendall, who used the Sanskrit manuscript obtained by Daniel Wright in 1875 from Kathmandu.<ref>Cecil Bendall, ed., ''Çikshāsamuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhistic Teaching Compiled by Çāntideva Chiefly from Earlier Mahāyāna-Sūtras'' (St Pétersburg: Commissionaires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1902), xxiv.</ref> The first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into a European language was undertaken by Louis de la Vallée Poussin, who translated the text in stages from 1892 onward and completed it in 1907. This was followed by five different translations into French in the twentieth century. Lionel David Barnett produced the first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into English in 1909, although he only did an abridged version. The first complete English translation of the verses appears to have been carried out by Marion Matics.<ref>Marion Leonidas Matics, ''Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The Bodhicaryāvatāra of the Buddhist Poet Śāntideva'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970).</ref> Since then, there have been some seventeen different English translations of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', and writings on this text continue to grow. It is today found in over a dozen European languages. It was also translated into Japanese by Ekai Kawaguchi (1866–1945) and published in 1921, and translations can be found in many other Asian languages.

Śāntideva’s other main work, ''The Compendium of Training'', was edited and published for the first time in the West by Cecil Bendell in 1902. He also started the translation, but it was finished by W. H. D. Rouse and published in 1922. As regards the translation of ''The Compendium of Training'' into other languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930. Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered it into modern Japanese from the Chinese version. The latest and most popular translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' today is the one by the Padmakara Translation Group and that of ''The Compendium of Training'' is the one by Charles Goodman.

Through these academic and religious translations and numerous other writings on bodhicitta, the teachings and practice of bodhicitta have today spread widely in many continents. Yet, the biggest impetus for the promotion of bodhicitta across the world has come from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), an ardent promoter of bodhicitta doctrine and practice. Throughout the decades following the exodus of Tibetans into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lama has tirelessly taught and written about bodhicitta and spread the teachings to large global audiences. Interest in Tibetan Buddhism in general and the bodhicitta teachings has grown rapidly as these teachings, which were previously inaccessible to foreigners, have become easily available.

Moreover, the teachings on bodhicitta and the bodhisattva ideal continue to appeal to modern progressive sensibilities, leading to their adoption and application even beyond religious circles. With influential leaders such as the Dalai Lama promoting these ideas, the rich tradition of bodhicitta—the way of wisdom and compassion—continues to spread in different parts of the world in the twenty-first century in a sustained effort to curb materialism, individualism, egocentricity, aggression, and environmental degradation, which are rampant in the world. This web resource contains extensive materials on bodhicitta in one place, launching a new chapter in the history of bodhicitta teachings. It provides timely support to help students and practitioners easily enhance their knowledge, deepen their understanding, and strengthen their practice.
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Articles/History of Bodhicitta Teachings

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== The Origins of Bodhicitta ==
Tradition would have it that bodhicitta existed since time immemorial, as all buddhas must start their journey by becoming a bodhisattva and one can only do so by cultivating bodhicitta—the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. However, from a historical perspective, the term ''bodhicitta'' and the idea of taking all sentient beings to the state of full enlightenment only emerges with the rise of the Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE. There is no explicit mention of the term ''bodhicitta'' in the Buddhist canon preserved in the Pāli language, which most scholars consider to be the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures.

One can find in the Pāli canon, particularly in the section on past buddhas and the Jātaka tales, references to the historical Buddha generating the first thoughts to become a buddha in his former lifetimes. A good example is the ascetic Sumedha, one of the previous rebirths of the historical Buddha, taking the vow to seek perfect enlightenment for the first time in the presence of Buddha Dīpaṃkara, who confirms his success in the future through a prediction.<ref>See "Sumedha's Wish" and "The History of Buddha Dīpaṅkara" in ''Chronicles of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhavaṃsa'') under Minor Collections (''Khuddakanikāya''), at suttacentral.net, https://suttacentral.net/bv?view=normal&lang=en. Retrieved on May 5, 2025.</ref> Similarly, we also find the story of the Buddha as the brahmin Jotipāla, who takes the vow once again in the presence of Buddha Kāśyapa and receives a prediction from him that he will one day become a buddha. These stories, along with many others about the Buddha as a bodhisattva and his aim to attain perfect enlightenment, are considered by later Buddhist thinkers to exemplify bodhicitta. No doubt, these accounts in the early canonical works contributed to the development of the concept and practice of bodhicitta in later times.

It is notable, however, that the early Buddhist scriptures portray the commitment to seek the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as a privilege reserved for only a select few individuals of high capacity. They do not explicitly mention the wish to pursue enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, nor do they articulate the noble aim of leading all sentient beings to the state of perfect enlightenment. Rather, in these early teachings, the focus is on the pursuit of individual liberation. Although some exceptional beings become fully enlightened buddhas with great compassion for the world, the teachings do not highlight the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta. The compassionate intention to benefit the world becomes more explicit in later times.

The ''Mahāvastu'' (the "Great Event" or "Great Story"), a book from around the second century BCE belonging to the Lokottaravādin school, is perhaps one of the earliest texts to explicitly mention the term ''bodhicitta'' and to present both aspects of bodhicitta: the aim for perfect enlightenment and wish to do so out of compassion for sentient beings.<ref>Jeom-suk Park claims that this appearance of bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' is indeed the first appearance of the term. See Jeom-suk Park, "Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism," ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 51, no. 2 (March 2003): 139.</ref> The verses that mention bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' (MVU) read as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na dhyānahānir bhavate kadācit /
na bodhicittaṃ jahate kadācit // (MVU 2.382)<ref>See Emmanuel Fauré, ed., ''Mahāvastu-avādana'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 2.382, 2.392, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. The #2 here stands for part 2 of the ''Mahāvastu'' as it has been arranged on GRETIL.</ref>

Never is there any falling off in meditation, and never
does he abandon the thought of enlightenment.<ref>See J. J. Jones, trans., ''The Mahāvastu'' (London: Luzac, 1952), 2:344.</ref>
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na bodhicittaṃ vijahati so kadācit /
na khaṇḍaśīlo bhavati asaṃvṛto vā // (MVU 2.392)

Never does he give up the thought of enlightenment.
He never becomes corrupt of morals nor dissolute.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 2:351, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>
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The accounts of the previous lives of the historical Buddha and of Buddha Maitreya (the future Buddha) in the ''Mahāvastu'' chronicle how, for example, during the time of Buddha Suprabhāsa, the historical Buddha as the monk Abhiya and Maitreya as King Vairocana made the aspiration to reach the state of perfect enlightenment and did so out of compassion to benefit the world. Such an aspiration to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of the world gradually evolved into the concept of bodhicitta with the emergence of Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE.
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|quote-text=yasmiṃ samaye satvā bhavensuḥ alenā atrāṇā aśaraṇā aparāyaṇā utsadalolā utsadadoṣā utsadamohā akuśalān dharmā samādāya vartensuḥ yobhūyena ca apāyapratipūrakā bhavensu tasmiṃ kāle tasmiṃ samaye aham anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyehaṃ // taṃ bhaveyaṃ bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukaṃpāya mahato janakāyasyārthāya hitāya sukhāya devānāṃ ca manuṣyāṇāṃ ca // (MVU 1.61)<ref>Fauré, ''Mahāvastu'', 1.161, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>

When beings come to be without refuge, support, protection, shelter, and succour, when they become characterized by fickleness, malice, and folly, when they live in accordance with wrong standards of conduct and generally go to crowd the worlds of woe, then may I awake to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. May I do so for the benefit and welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world, for the sake of the multitude, for the good of devas and men.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 1:50.</ref>
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The earliest Mahāyāna texts to discuss bodhicitta are said to be ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'' (''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'')<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_aSTAdazasAhasrikA-prajJApAramitA55-82.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>’</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fols. 1b1–286a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0012.</ref> and ''The Verses that Summarize the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'').<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8. See Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, ''Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 1.5, 5.5-8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ratnaguNasaMcayagAthA.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See also, ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fols. 1b1-19b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0013.</ref> These texts date to around 100 BCE and both contain the term ''bodhicitta'' and promote the concept of seeking enlightenment out of compassion and love for sentient beings.<ref>See ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'', 16.5 (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fol. 10a and ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 16b.</ref> The term ''bodhicitta'' appears at the beginning of ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', when Subhūti, through the blessings of the Buddha, submits to the Buddha that a bodhisattva "should train to not have pride in having bodhicitta, for such mind is not mind, but mind is by nature luminous."<ref>འདི་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་དེས་ཀྱང་རློམ་སེམས་སུ་མི་བགྱིད་པ་དེ་ལྟར་བསླབ་པར་བགྱིའོ། །དེ་ཅིའི་སླད་དུ་ཞེ་ན། འདི་ལྟར་སེམས་དེ་ནི་སེམས་མ་མཆིས་པ་སྟེ། སེམས་རང་བཞིན་ནི་འོད་གསལ་བ་ལགས་སོ།། ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 3a.</ref>

[[File:Text sample 1 for history of bodhicitta.jpg|900px|class=w-100 h-auto my-4 border rounded|]]

Similarly, in another passage from this same text, which Gareth Sparham calls the "Origin-Passage,"<ref>Gareth Sparham, "Indian Altruism: A Study of the Terms ''bodhicitta'' and ''cittotpāda''," ''Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15, no. 2 (1992): 224–42.</ref> Subhūti advises Śāriputra that a bodhisattva should not think of an action as hardship because one cannot serve the multitude of sentient beings with such a thought.<ref>See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'', fol. 16b. See Edward Conze, T''he Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary'' (Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation, 1975), 93.</ref> Only with the feeling of joy and love toward sentient beings, as though they were one’s father, mother, brother, or sister, will one be able to work for countless sentient beings and cultivate the intention to take all of these beings out of suffering for all times, just as one wishes to take oneself out of suffering for all times.

What, then, could have led to the development of such a noble and high ideal as bodhicitta? Dorji Wangchuk, in his authoritative work on bodhicitta entitled ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study on the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'', speculates that the rise of the bodhicitta concept may have been "driven by a psychological need of the Buddhists to compensate for the loss of the historical Buddha."<ref>See Dorji Wangchuk, ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 89.</ref> After the Buddha’s passing, some of his followers may have sought a substitute for the historical Buddha beyond the corpus of teachings and the Saṅgha community, who, as custodians of the Vinaya discipline that the Buddha designated as his representative, were entrusted with preserving his legacy after his departure. This may have been more common among those who chose to follow a hermetic and reclusive life outside the monastic institutions or sought a different understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and an alternative spiritual approach to what the mainstream monastic establishment offered. The Mahāyāna system is said to have emerged as a result of such a tendency,<ref>See Paul Williams, ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'' (London: Routledge, 2009).</ref> and it is likely that the need for a present buddha figure was strong among such people. In order to have a buddha, one must have a bodhisattva who aspires to become a buddha, and for that one needs to have the resolve or motivation to become a buddha. Thus, the concept of bodhicitta.

Gombrich and Wangchuk also argue that the Buddhist scriptures present the ultimate truth as being eternal and unchanging.<ref>Wangchuk, ''Resolve'', 78. Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'' (London: Routledge, 2006), 121.</ref> Because this truth remains immanent and eternal, individuals who achieve such realization emerge periodically throughout history. This understanding opens the possibility for other persons to attain the same enlightenment that the historical Buddha achieved. Thus, we see the emergence of a plurality of buddhas in early Buddhist teachings, which present six and twenty-four past buddhas as well as future buddhas such as Maitreya. With the rise of Mahāyāna, the pantheon of buddhas increases, and not only are there numerous past and future buddhas, one sees the idea of numerous present buddhas dwelling in different buddha realms situated in the vast expanse of the new Mahāyāna cosmology. With numerous buddhas as examples, cultivating bodhicitta to achieve buddhahood becomes a central theme.

Bodhicitta, as some scholars have argued, was also an expansion and improvement on the concept of ''prathamacitta'', or the initial resolve made by the Buddha to seek perfect enlightenment. This resolve is also presented as ''praṇidhāna'' (Pāli: ''paṇidhāna''), or the earnest aspiration to attain enlightenment. It is also thought to be an enhanced elucidation of ''adhyāśaya'' (Pāli: ''ajjhāsaya''), or the noble intention to earnestly seek enlightenment or benefit others. Some scholars considered ''adhyāśaya'' to be an abbreviation of ''anuttarāyāṃ samyaksambodhau cittam utpādayati'', or the generation of the thought of the unsurpassed perfect buddhahood. Many early Mahāyāna sources also contain the term ''cittotpāda''—the cultivation of the mind—which refers to the generation of the intention to seek perfect enlightenment. In later works, the terms ''bodhicitta'', ''cittotpāda'', and ''bodhicittotpāda'' came to be used synonymously, although they may have had different referents and connotations in the early period of Mahāyāna.

Whatever the main basis of the technical term ''bodhicitta'', the topic of bodhicitta was repeated and further elaborated in other sūtras belonging to the perfection of wisdom class and numerous other Mahāyāna sūtras that emerged in the subsequent centuries. The main sūtras containing the full-blown teachings on bodhicitta include ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra'') in the ''Avataṃsaka'' collection, ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''), ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' (''Sāgaramatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), ''The Questions of Ugraḥ Sūtra'' (''Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra''), ''The Questions of Vīradatta'' (''Vīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'' (''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''), and ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'' (''Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra''), to mention a few. In these sūtras, we see the development of the concept of bodhicitta along with the notions of compassion and wisdom. In many sources, such as ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' and ''The Basket of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisatvapiṭaka''), bodhicitta also refers to the ultimate nature of things or the luminous nature of the mind, which Wangchuk categorizes as ontological bodhicitta.

Besides the numerous canonical Mahāyāna sūtras that discuss and promote bodhicitta, we also see the rise of commentarial literature which deals with the theory and practice of bodhicitta. The foremost champion of the Mahāyāna teachings that included the concept of bodhicitta was Nāgārjuna, who lived roughly between 150 to 250 CE. In his ''Praise of the Diamond Mind'' (''Cittavajrastava'') and ''Praise of Dharmadhātu'' (''Dharmadhātustava''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Cittavajrastava'' (''Sems kyi rdo rje bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1121, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 69b4–70a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1121, and ''Dharmadhātustava'' (''Chos kyi dbyings su bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1118, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 1.63b5–67b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1118.</ref> Nāgārjuna uses the term ''bodhicitta'' to refer to the nature of mind and ultimate reality. However, in ''The Commentary on Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna, he presents bodhicitta as "the thought motivated by great compassion."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེས་བརླན་པའི་སེམས་ཀྱིས་ནི། །འབད་པས་བསྒོམ་པར་བྱ་བ་ཡིན། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittavivaraṇa'' (''Byang chub sems kyi 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1800, rgyud, vol. 35, ngi, fol. 38b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1800.</ref> This, in later times, came to be called ''relative bodhicitta''. In his ''Compendium of Sūtras'' (''Sūtrasamuccaya''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' (''Mdo kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3934, dbu ma, vol. 110, ki, fols. 141b1–215a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3934.</ref> Nāgārjuna presents numerous citations from sūtras to illustrate the rarity and importance of many aspects of Mahāyāna practice, including the supreme thought of awakening, or bodhicitta. Another text on how to take the vow of bodhicitta entitled ''The Ritual for Generating Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādavidhi''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi'' (''Byang chub tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga''), in Derge Tengyur D3966, dbu ma, vol. 112, gi, fols. 237a4–239a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3966.</ref> which contains some detail on the bodhisattva aspirations, is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The Chinese tradition also ascribes to Nāgārjuna a text called ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'' (''Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun''),<ref>For an English translation of this text, see Minoru Kiyota, trans., "The Bodhicitta Śāstra," in ''Esoteric Texts'' (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2015), 103–29.</ref> a tantric text which contains the concept of bodhicitta both as the altruistic mind to take all beings to perfect enlightenment and as the ultimate nature of the mind, or buddha-nature. There is no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of this text.

However, the text attributed to Nāgārjuna which explicitly discusses bodhicitta is his discourse to his royal disciple, claimed to be a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty who ruled in the Deccan plateau in the second century. In fact, Nāgārjuna wrote two homilies, but his ''Epistle to a Friend'' (''suhṛllekhaḥ''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''suhṛllekhaḥ'' (''bshes pa'i spring yig''), in Derge Tengyur D4182,spring yig, vol. 173, nge, fols. 40b4–46b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4182.</ref> does not discuss bodhicitta as does his other work, ''The Precious Garland'' (''Ratnavāli'').<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref> This work discusses bodhicitta, the bodhisattva practices, the stages on the bodhisattva path, and the bodhisattva goal.

In addition to these texts, the Tibetan Tengyur also contains several aspirational prayers for bodhisattva practice that are attributed to Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna’s teachings on bodhicitta, which tradition claims he received from Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom, was passed down mainly through the adherents of the Middle Way school that he initiated. This tradition came to be known as the Profound View tradition and was espoused and propagated by many Buddhist masters from famous universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.

Another famous lineage of bodhicitta teachings known as the Vast Conduct tradition was passed down from Asaṅga (fourth century), who is said to have received the teachings from Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to this tradition, Asaṅga propitiated Maitreya for twelve long years without receiving a vision of Maitreya, even in a dream. Disappointed, Asaṅga gives up the practice of propitiation and leaves his hermitage when he encounters a wretched bitch in agony as her rotting hind is being consumed by maggots. Out of intense compassion, Asaṅga feeds a bit of his own flesh to the dog and uses his tongue to take out the maggots. Disgusted, he does so with closed eyes, but his tongue touches the ground instead of the dog, and Lo, as he opens his eyes, he sees before him Maitreya with his sublime aura. "You have no compassion," Asaṅga complains to Maitreya for not even showing up in his dream, although he worshiped Maitreya for a dozen years. Maitreya tells Asaṅga that he has been near Asaṅga all along but Asaṅga could not see him. Having removed some karmic obscurations after a long retreat, Asaṅga could see Maitreya as a wretched dog. Then, as compassion for the dog stirred within him, Asaṅga removed the obscurations in his mind, making him able to see the divine figure of Maitreya. Maitreya asked Asaṅga to carry him on his shoulder and ask people what they could see. Most people in the town saw nothing, but an old woman saw him carrying a miserable bitch. Subsequently, Maitreya is said to have taken Asaṅga miraculously to Tuṣita Heaven and to have given him the teachings on Maitreya's five works. The three longer treatises of these five works—namely, ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' (''Abhisamayālaṃkāra''), ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), and ''The Ultimate Continuum of Mahāyāna'' (''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'')—varyingly discuss the concept of bodhicitta as an altruistic thought of enlightenment or the nature of one's mind.

In ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', bodhicitta is discussed as the first of the seventy topics related to the Buddhist ground, path, and fruition. We find in this book a very clear definition of bodhicitta, although it uses the term ''cittotpāda''.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=''Cittotpāda'' is the wish to attain the perfect full enlightenment for the sake of others.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་གཞན་དོན་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་རྫོགས་པའི་བྱང་ཆུབ་འདོད། ། Maitreya, ''Abhisamayālaṃkāra'' (''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3786, vol. 80, sher phyin, ka, fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3786.</ref>
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This verse remains the most concise and popular definition of bodhicitta. The text also breaks down bodhicitta into twenty-two types using similes and aligns them to the progression of the bodhisattva path. This same concept is further elaborated in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), in which a whole chapter is dedicated to discussing bodhicitta.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshigs le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, vol. 123, sems tsam, phi, fols. 1a1–39a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref> These two texts by Maitreya and the commentaries on them contain the most detailed theoretical discussions on bodhicitta. In ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', we find not only discussions on relative bodhicitta (i.e., the altruistic thought of enlightenment) but also on ultimate bodhicitta, which is the pristine wisdom discerning the ultimate nature of things.

Asaṅga elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta through his own ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi''), which is a part of his larger work entitled ''The Stages of Yoga Practice'' (''Yogācārabhūmi''). In this work, he points out that bodhicitta has two specific objects.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Therefore, the cultivation of the mind [of enlightenment] aims at enlightenment and also at the welfare of sentient beings.<ref>Asaṅga, ''Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ'' (''Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa las byang chub sems dpa'i sa''), in Derge Tengyur D4037, vol. 129, sems tsam, wi, fol. 7b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4037.</ref>
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It is clear from this statement that Asaṅga is commenting on the definition of bodhicitta provided by Maitreya in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and also in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''. Both Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' and Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' also present the causes and conditions for cultivating bodhicitta. The latter became the main source for the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow in the Vast Conduct tradition. Passed down through Asaṅga, this line of transmission for taking the bodhisattva vow became frequently, though not exclusively, associated with the Mind Only/Yoga Practice school of Mahāyāna. The tradition later became known as the Vast Conduct tradition and was propagated by some of the eminent teachers of bodhicitta.

Besides Nāgārjuna and Asaṅga, the Tibetan tradition also includes Aśvaghoṣa among the early proponents of bodhicitta. Aśvaghoṣa, who is generally believed to have lived sometime within the first two centuries of the common era, was an acclaimed Buddhist poet, dramatist, and the author of poetic works such as ''The Acts of the Buddha'' (''Buddhacarita''), ''Beautiful Nanda'' (''Saundarananda''), and ''The Story of Śāriputra'' (''Śāriputraprakaraṇa''). The Chinese tradition ascribes ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'' (''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra'', ''Dasheng qixin lun'') to Aśvaghoṣa, although modern scholars contest this attribution. The Tibetan Tengyur canon contains two works on relative and ultimate bodhicitta that are considered to be by Aśvaghoṣa,<ref>Aśvaghoṣa, ''Saṃvṛtibodhicittabhāvanopadeśavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge pad+ma spungs pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3911, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 13b4–15a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3911, and ''Paramārthabodhicittabhāvanākramavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Don dam pa byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge rin po che'i sgron ma zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3912, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 15a6–16b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3912.</ref> but there is no known record of the transmission of teachings on bodhicitta from Aśvaghoṣa.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings in India and Beyond ==
It is not clear when the names given to the two traditions of Mahāyāna teachings—the Vast Conduct tradition and the Profound View tradition—were introduced, and the names appear to have undergone different phases. However, written records clearly point to the actual teachings on bodhicitta being passed down through generations of Nāgārjuna's and Asaṅga's followers. For the Profound View school, after Nāgārjuna, his disciple Āryadeva promoted bodhicitta in his writings, particularly in ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yogic Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'').<ref>Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'' (''Bstan bcos bzhi brgya pa zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3846, vol. 97, dbu ma, tsha, fols. 1a1–18a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> "The cultivation of the initial thought of enlightenment," he claimed, "outshines even the merit which can make all beings on earth universal monarchs."<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་སེམས་དང་པོ། །ས་སྟེངས་སྐྱེ་བོ་ཐམས་ཅད་ནི། །འཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བ་ཉིད་འགྱུར་བ། །དེ་དག་བསོད་ནམས་ལས་ཁྱད་འཕགས། ། Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'', fol. 6a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> Similarly, Bhāvaviveka (ca. 500–570 CE) composed his ''Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā''), devoting the opening chapter to the topic of bodhicitta. In it he writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Bodhicitta is the seed of buddhas
Adorned with loving-kindness,
Compassion and knowledge.
The wise shall not abandon it.<ref>བྱམས་པ་དང་ནི་སྙིང་རྗེ་དང་། །ཤེས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྒྱན་པ་ཡི། །སངས་རྒྱས་ས་བོན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Bhāvaviveka, ''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā'' (''Dbu ma'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3855, vol. 98, dbu ma, dza, fols. 2a–2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3855.</ref>
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Candrakīrti, the author of ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''),<ref>Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, vol. 102, dbu ma, 'a, fols. 201b1–219a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta in the context of the Mahāyāna path, particularly as understood in the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna. Although Candrakīrti had issues with Bhāvaviveka on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s logical procedures to establish the ultimate truth, they shared the same zest for underscoring the importance of bodhicitta on the bodhisattva path to perfect enlightenment. Candrakīrti organized his famous work using the ten stages of the bodhisattva path and the different levels of bodhicitta. Right at the outset of the work, he declares that bodhicitta, compassion, and the understanding of nonduality are the causes of bodhisattvas.

The most influential champion of bodhicitta teachings in India, however, was undoubtedly Śāntideva, the author of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'')<ref>Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fols. 1a1–40a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> and ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'').<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 3a2–194b52, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. See also the verse summary: ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 1a1–3a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref> Śāntideva probably lived around the beginning of the eighth century CE and was likely born in North India, although we have no evidence or records from his time. Most of what we know about him comes from accounts of his life written long after his time by faithful followers. Like the Buddha, he is said to have been born as a prince in North India but to have renounced his kingdom to pursue a spiritual career through the guidance of his tutelary deity Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom. Śāntideva is said to have reached a high level of erudition and spiritual enlightenment through Mañjuśrī’s blessings, although, outwardly, he appeared as a lazy monk, indulging in eating, sleeping, and relieving himself, thus earning him the nickname Busuku.

As the story goes, it was to mock his indolence and to shame him that his peers persuaded Śāntideva to give a public sermon. Śāntideva agreed and is said to have miraculously climbed on the unreasonably high throne they purposely set up to mock him. Śāntideva then asked the congregation whether they wanted an exposition of a text that already existed or something new. They asked for a new teaching, resulting in Śāntideva's delivery of the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'', or ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva is said to have levitated into the sky as he recited the verse "When existence and nonexistence do not remain before the mind, as there is no other aspect, the mind comes to rest without any grasping."<ref>གང་ཚེ་དངོས་དང་དངོས་མེད་དག ། བློ་ཡི་མདུན་ན་མི་གནས་པ། །དེ་ཚེ་རྣམ་པ་གཞན་མེད་པས། །དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི། ། Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 32a.4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> He rose higher and higher until he disappeared, his voice still being heard. The disappearance into sky could be understood as an allegory for the highest experience of transcendence and emptiness of all conceptual thoughts in Śāntideva’s philosophical system. However, an old manuscript recently discovered in Drepung Monastery states that Śāntideva’s reputation soared after his recitation, resulting in much veneration and offering. And Śāntideva is said to have left Nālandā to avoid the distraction entailed by such attention.<ref>Anonymous, ''Spyod 'jug gi bsdus don dang slob dpon zhi ba lha'i lo rgyus'', in Bka' gdams gsung 'bum phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, Par gzhi dang po (Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), 6:9–14, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD153536_DD71AE.</ref> Thus, Śāntideva's miraculous disappearance into the sky likely represents a later mythological embellishment of the actual circumstances surrounding his departure.

Whatever the case may be of its origins, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' has arguably become the most influential Buddhist work in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition on bodhicitta. In this work, Śāntideva lays out the practice of bodhicitta in ten chapters, making bold claims such as:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Those who wish to crush the many sorrows of existence,
Who wish to quell the pain of living beings,
Who wish to have experience of a myriad joys
Should never turn away from bodhichitta. (1.8)<ref>སྲིད་པའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་གཞོམ་འདོད་ཅིང་། །སེམས་ཅན་མི་བདེ་བསལ་བར་འདོད་པ་དང་། །བདེ་མང་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་སྤྱོད་པར་འདོད་པས་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྟག་ཏུ་གཏང་མི་བྱ། ། This translation belongs to the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 32. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 2a.4–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Since its propagation in the eighth century, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', combining highly inspirational exhortations and incisive philosophical arguments in an evocative poetic language, appears to have become the ''locus classicus'' for bodhicitta study and practice, used and cited by many writers after its appearance. It was Śāntideva who also explicitly presented the meditation on equality between self and others and exchange between self and others as a way to cultivate bodhicitta, as illustrated by the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Do not be downcast, but marshal all your powers;
Make an effort; be the master of yourself!
Practice the equality of self and other;
Practice the exchange of self and other. (7.16)<ref>སྒྱིད་ལུག་མེད་པར་དཔུང་ཚོགས་དང་། །ལྷུར་བླང་བདག་ཉིད་དབང་བྱ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་མཉམ་པ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་བརྗེ་བར་བགྱི། ། This translation is by the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 99. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 20b.5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Traditional Tibetan scholars claimed that over a hundred Indian commentaries were written on Śāntideva’s famous work, but there are only twelve Indian commentaries on it available today. They include works by Prajñākaramati, Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Kalyāṇadeva, Vairocanarakṣita, Vinītadeva, Vibhūticandra, Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, and Atiśa.

While ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' is an original work by Śantideva written in poetic verse, his other major work, ''The Compendium of Training'', is an anthology of citations of passages from sūtras interspersed with his own words. The two works most likely developed simultaneously in an iterative process, the latter being a compilation of sources for the former in verse. ''The Compendium of Training'' was condensed into a shorter verse summary, the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'', the gist of which is presented by the following verses.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions.
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them.<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྡོམ་པ་ནི། །རྒྱས་པར་ཐེག་པ་ཆེ་ལས་འབྱུང་། །གང་གིས་ལྟུང་བར་མི་འགྱུར་བའི། །གནད་ཀྱི་གནས་རྣམས་འདིར་རིག་བྱ། །བདག་གི་ལུས་དང་ལོངས་སྤྱོད་དང་། །དགེ་བ་དུས་གསུམ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས། །སེམས་ཅན་ཀུན་ལ་བཏང་བ་དང་། །དེ་བསྲུང་དག་པ་སྤེལ་བའོ། These are verses 3 and 4 of the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā''. For the Tibetan text, see ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 1b.3–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
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Despite being an important source for bodhisattva practice, there are only two commentarial works on ''The Compendium of Training''. One is an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and the other is a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa.

The study and practice of bodhicitta within the Profound View tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism reached unprecedented heights following the eighth century, largely through the contributions of Śāntideva. In addition to the masters who commented on Śāntideva’s works mentioned above, there were other masters such as Mañjuśrīmitra, Jñānagarbha, Jetāri, Puṇyaśrī, Dhanaśrī, Vimalamitra, Śāntarakṣita, and Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla, who took up the scholarship and practice on bodhicitta. Among them, Mañjuśrīmitra and Jñānagarbha focused on the exposition of ultimate bodhicitta, which discerns the ultimate reality of emptiness, while Jetāri wrote a manual for taking the bodhisattva vow and a practice manual for beginners. In his treatise entitled ''Presenting Twelve Points on the Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa''), Mañjuśrīmitra argues that bodhicitta is the mother of all buddhas, the basis of all disciplines, the foundation of all merit, the source of all enlightened qualities, the basis of liberation, and the supreme path leading to enlightenment.<ref>See ''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2578, vol. 65, rgyud, ngu, fols. 44b4–59a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2578.</ref> However, the most prolific Indian author on bodhicitta belonging to the Middle Way school in the first millennium after Śāntideva was Kamalaśīla. He wrote his trilogy on ''The Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama'') in which he presented the gradual process of the bodhisattva path. He and his teacher Śāntarakṣita, both of whom visited Tibet in the second half of the eighth century, and Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, who traveled to Tibet in the middle of the eleventh century, were the leading doyens who transmitted the teachings on bodhicitta to Tibet.

As for the Vast Conduct tradition, which is supposed to have come down from Maitreya and the pioneer advocate Asaṅga, it continued through Vasubandhu, the younger brother of Asaṅga, who initially followed a non-Mahāyāna school and was critical of Asaṅga's teachings, but later embraced the Mahāyāna school of Mind Only. Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Asaṅga's ''The Compendium of Mahāyāna'' (''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''), and ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Aspiration to Good Actions'' (''Āryabhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja''). Additionally, a work entitled ''Treatise on the Generation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādaśāstra'') is attributed to him. Other commentators and masters who continued the teachings on bodhicitta in this line include Vasubandhu's students Sthiramati, Dignāga, and Guṇaprabha, who wrote various commentaries. They were followed by Jinaputra, Jñānaśrī, Niḥsvabhāvatā, Parahitabhadra, and Sāgaramegha, whose works are included in the Tibetan Tengyur canon. A prominent master of this line was the householder Candragomin,<ref>While there is no complete scholarly consensus, the majority of modern scholarship seems to place Candragomin in either the fifth–sixth centuries CE (the earlier estimate) or more commonly in the seventh century CE (approximately 600–650 CE, with the latter being the more widely accepted timeframe among contemporary scholars.</ref> who authored a treatise called ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'')<ref>See ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4081, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 166b1–167a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4081.</ref> and is said to have challenged Candrakīrti in debate. Śāntarakṣita and Bodhibhadra wrote commentaries on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses''.<ref>See ''Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti'' (''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4082, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 167a6–184b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4082, and ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśakapañjikā'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa'i dka' 'grel''), in Derge Tengyur D4083, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 184b3–217b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4083.</ref> The teachings and instructions in this tradition were passed down to Atiśa mainly by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa in the tenth century.

While the teachings on bodhicitta spread through these two Mahāyāna lineages, Mahāyāna Buddhism also saw the rise of yet another mode of practice and transmission. This was the emergence of what came to be called Vajrayāna or tantric Buddhism, as the system was mainly based on a body of literature called tantras. Purported to be the words of the Buddha just like the Mahāyāna sūtras, these tantras presented a path to enlightenment that included a wide range of mental, verbal, and embodied tools, as well as radical techniques. Focused on the unraveling of the innate mind of enlightenment, it adopted a syncretic approach, using a great number of non-Buddhist rituals and elements infused with Buddhist philosophies and values to bring about an expedient internal transformation. The tantric masters and texts underscored the importance of bodhicitta as an indispensable component of the Vajrayāna path. They promoted the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta as an intention to seek buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings but championed the understanding of bodhicitta as the realization of the innate nature of the mind and existence. We find also in the Vajrayāna teachings the presentation of symbolic and embodied forms of bodhicitta, which Dorji Wangchuk categorizes as psycho-physiological and semeiological bodhicitta. These esoteric Vajrayāna teachings on bodhicitta flourished in India toward the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, when it also started to spread to Tibet.

A couple centuries after their emergence in India, the teachings on bodhicitta began to spread beyond India. The teachings first traveled to Central Asia and from there to China. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', for instance, was translated by Lokakṣema in 179 BCE. This was followed by the translation of many other sūtras and commentaries by translators such as Paramārtha, Dharmarakṣa, Kumārajīva, Buddhabhadra, and Dharmakṣema in the subsequent centuries. These included the main sūtras containing teachings on bodhicitta such as ''The Flower Ornament Sūtra'' (''Avataṃsakasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'', ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'', ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'', ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'', ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'', and the other versions of the perfection of wisdom sūtras. From the accounts of Āryadeva and Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, we can also surmise that the teachings on bodhicitta spread to Ceylon and southeastern parts of Asia.

== The Transmission of Bodhicitta Teachings to Tibet ==
Tibetan historians claim that some Buddhist sūtras, such as ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' (དཔང་སྐོང་ཕྱག་བརྒྱ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ།)<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 1b1–5b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267. No Sanskrit or Chinese versions of this sūtra are known to exist.</ref> and ''The Basket's Display'' (''Karaṇḍavyūhasūtra''),<ref>''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa za ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur, D116, vol. 51, mdo sde, pa, fols. 200a3–247b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0116.</ref> reached Tibet during the reign of the twenty-eighth Yarlung king, Lha Thothori, sometime in the fifth century. Although no one in Tibet understood the texts at that time, they contained teachings on altruism and the bodhisattva path. While ''The Basket's Display'' mainly focuses on the virtues of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion, and his mantra, ''oṃ maṇi padme huṃ'', ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' contains homages to buddhas, the twelve sets of the Buddha's teachings, and bodhisattvas. It also explicitly mentions bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I, by the name . . . from now on until I reach the heart of enlightenment, shall cultivate the thought of enlightenment. I shall never let go of the thought of enlightenment. May I never be separated from the sublime virtuous friend.<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 5a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267.</ref>
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The Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on bodhicitta in particular may have spread to Tibet in some form in the seventh century during the reign of the thirty-second Yarlung monarch Songtsen Gampo. During this time Songtsen Gampo took two Buddhist brides—one from Tang China and another from the Kathmandu Valley—and also sent his minister Thönmi Sambhoṭa to India to learn Sanskrit. While we see the general introduction of the Buddhist system at this time, there are no specific records of texts related to bodhicitta having been translated or taught during this period, although later records such as the ''Maṇi Kabum'' would have us believe that teachings on compassion and bodhicitta were promulgated. Tibetan Buddhists also believe that the study and practice of bodhicitta and compassion formed a fundamental part of Songtsen Gampo’s promotion of the Buddhist religion, as he was himself considered an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion.

Historical records clearly point to the dissemination of teachings on bodhicitta in Tibet in the eighth century during the reign of Trisong Detsen, the thirty-seventh king of the Yarlung dynasty. Besides inviting to Tibet numerous Buddhist scholars and masters such as Śāntarakṣita, Padmasambhava, and Vimalamitra from India and Mohoyen from China, Tri Songdetsen initiated extensive Buddhist projects, including the construction of Samye Monastery, the institution of the first Tibetan monastic community, and above all the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan from Sanskrit and Chinese. A great number of Mahāyāna sūtras, which contained the teachings on bodhicitta, as well as many tantras and commentaries, were translated toward the end of the eighth century and beginning of the ninth century, as witnessed by the catalogs of texts created around that time. For instance, ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', which elaborates on the cultivation of bodhicitta, and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', two of the main treatises discussing bodhicitta, were translated as part of this massive translation program.

Similarly, tantric texts such as ''The Garland of Views: The King of Pith Instructions'' (''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'')<ref>*''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'' (''Man ngag gi rgyal po lta ba'i 'phreng ba''), in Pe cing Tengyur Q4726, vol. 77, rgyud 'grel, bu, 414b7–419b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG13126_4726.</ref> by Padmasambhava and ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (aka ''Bodhicittabhāvanā'') by Mañjuśrīmitra,<ref>*''Bodhicittabhāvanā'' (''Byang sems rdo la gser zhun''), also known as ''Meditation on Bodhicitta'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2591, vol. 66, rgyud 'grel, cu, 1b1–4b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2591.</ref> which explain the concept of ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric context, were also translated and taught. Mañjuśrīmitra praises bodhicitta in the latter text as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All dharmas considered to be sublime features of liberation
Are qualities of perfecting bodhicitta; they come from bodhicitta.<ref>ཇི་སྙེད་འཕགས་པའི་རྣམ་གྲོལ་ཆོས་སུ་བསྙད་པ་དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྫོགས་ལས་དེ་ཡི་ཡོན་ཏན་དེ་ལས་དེ་དག་བྱུང་། Mañjuśrīmitra, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems sde spyi'i snying po'i bstan bcos byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun'', in Damngak Dzö, vol. 1, ka, 182, fol. 9b2–3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun#tab=Tibetan_Text.</ref>
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Many texts now included in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras (Nyingma Gyubum), such as ''The All Creating King of Bodhicitta'' (''Kulayarājatantra''),<ref>''Sarvadharmamahāśantibodhicittakulayarāja'' (''Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems kun byed rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D828, vol. 97, rnying rgyud, ka, 1b1–86a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0828.</ref> formulate the concept of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and appear to have been translated by Vairocana and others during this period. History also records a debate between the gradualist Indian tradition, led by Kamalaśīla, and the simultaneist Chinese tradition, led by Mohoyen, with King Trisong Detsen as the judge. The Indian side that promoted a gradualist approach to the cultivation of bodhicitta is said to have won, and the king is said to have declared the gradualist Indian tradition to be the official system in Tibet. This period of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet came to be known as the early diffusion period, or ''ngadar'', in contrast to the later diffusion period, or ''chidar'', which took place in Tibet from the eleventh century onward.

The great Buddhist intellectual and spiritual activity in Tibet that included the translation of innumerable works and the open promotion of Buddhist teachings stopped in the middle of the ninth century. As the Yarlung dynasty collapsed due to internecine conflicts, Tibet entered a century and half of political fragmentation and intellectual decline. However, with the revival of Buddhist systems toward the end of the tenth century, Tibet witnessed a resurgence of the study and practice of bodhicitta both in the exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric traditions. Those who preserved the teachings from the early diffusion period became known as the Ancient, or Nyingma, school, while others who brought new teachings from India, Nepal, and Kashmir came to be known as the New, or Sarma, schools. The new schools included some of the leading sects such as Kadam, Kagyu, and Sakya.

Within the Nyingma school, the teachings on bodhicitta continued through the received tradition known as the ''kama'' teachings as well as the new revelations known as ''terma''. The received ''kama'' tradition, which covers the complete range of the Buddhist system, including the nine vehicles, passed on the study and practice of bodhicitta as an essential component of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna path. Most of the books in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras, considered to be apocryphal writings by later critics, began to circulate as Buddhism was revived in the eleventh century. Many of these works described bodhicitta as the state of perfect enlightenment which is latent in beings. This was further enhanced by the ''terma'' literature, which is believed to have been hidden by Padmasambhava and his coterie in the eighth and ninth centuries to be revealed and disseminated by treasure discoverers, or ''tertön''s, at the right time in the future. Composed mostly of ritual liturgies and meditation instructions, the numerous cycles of rediscovered teachings also promoted bodhicitta as a fundamental aspect of Vajrayāna practice.

The new schools equally underscored the importance of bodhicitta in both exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric study and practice. Among the most notable developments in this period was the arrival of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1055) in Tibet in 1042 CE at the invitation of Jangchub Ö, the king of Western Tibet. Historians narrate that with the chaotic and decentralized revival of Buddhism in Tibet toward the end of tenth century, the kings of Western Tibet were alarmed by the wayward conduct of some Buddhist teachers who were abusing tantric practices by making some of the secretive teachings public and taking some of the symbolic teachings literally. Thus, the kings felt the urgency to correct this by inviting an authoritative and eminent master from India, a bill which Atiśa fit perfectly, as he had become renowned as the most erudite and accomplished master in India by this time. Traditional Tibetan historians claim that Yeshe Ö, the monk ruler of Western Tibet and uncle of Jangchub Ö, was taken prisoner in a conflict with the Garlog Turks, who demanded a ransom in gold equal to his size. Yeshe Ö is said to have instructed his nephew to use the gold his nephew had raised to invite Atiśa to Tibet, rather than giving it to the Turks. This story, contested by some modern scholars, is often told to highlight the personal sacrifices made by Tibet’s kings to bring the sacred teachings of the Buddha to Tibet.<ref>See Sam van Schaik, ''Tibet: A History'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 57.</ref>

After two separate emissaries to India led by Gya Lotsāwa Tsöndru Senge (བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེངྒེ་, d.u.) and Naktso Lotsāwa Tsultrim Gyalwa (ནག་འཚོ་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱལ་བ་, 1011–1064) respectively, and after much effort to persuade the abbot of Vikramaśīla, Atiśa was allowed to travel to Tibet. Jangchub Ö received him in Western Tibet, and during his time in the royal court, Atiśa composed ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhipathapradīpa'', (''Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma''), in Derge Tengyur D3947, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 238a6–241a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3947.</ref> a treatise which laid out the spiritual path for three types of persons. This text, along with its autocommentary, highlighted the ethical aspects of the Buddhist path, including the practice of bodhicitta, and would become the exemplar of the ''lamrim'' genre of literature on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Atiśa also composed the short text ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' (''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 294b7–296a1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref> which supplemented his earlier work on the conduct of the bodhisattva. He writes in it:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Cultivate loving kindness and compassion;
Hold firm the thought of enlightenment. (v. 5)<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེ་བསྒོམ་བྱ་ཞིང༌། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ནི་བརྟན་པར་བྱ། ། ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 295a.2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref>
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Besides these two main works on bodhicitta and Mahāyāna, Atiśa also composed numerous other treatises and commentaries, many of them at the request of his Tibetan students. His teachings were spread by his many students, including Dromtön Gyalwai Jungne (འབྲོམ་སྟོན་རྒྱལ་བའི་འབྱུང་གནས་, 1004–64), his lay disciple who established Reting Monastery and launched the Kadam tradition, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab (རྔོག་ལེགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ, eleventh century), who founded Sangpu Neuthok, the famous Buddhist scholastic center in Tibet that flourished from the eleventh–fourteenth centuries. The three chief students of Dromtönpa—Potowa Rinchen Sal (པོ་ཏོ་བ་རིན་ཆེན་གསལ་, 1027–1105), Chengawa Tsultrim Bar (སྤྱན་སྔ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་འབར་, 1033/8–1103), and Puchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen (ཕུ་ཆུང་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1031–1106)—often referred to as the three brothers (''སྐུ་མཆེད་རྣམ་གསུམ་''), developed the Kadam tradition further and initiated the rise of the rich and powerful tradition of Lojong, or mind training. At the heart of the Lojong tradition is the practice of cultivating bodhicitta, particularly through the seven points of cause and effect.

While Atiśa was on his way to Tibet, he met Marpa Chökyi Lodro (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012?–1097) in Kathmandu. Marpa, who declined to be Atiśa’s translator, was at that time on his trip to India to receive teachings from Nāropa. Having received teachings from many masters such as Nāropa, Maitrīpa, and Jñānagarbha, Marpa started giving teachings to numerous disciples in southern Tibet, leading to the establishment of the Marpa Kagyu school. Teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta were disseminated through this school, and they were especially integrated into the instructions on Mahāmudrā and the Six Yogas of Nāropa. These teachings would spread widely in the subsequent centuries through the different subschools founded by the followers of Marpa.

Before Marpa embarked on his journeys to India, he studied under Drokmi Śākya Yeshe (འབྲོག་མི་ཤཱཀྱ་ཡེ་ཤེས་, 992?–1043/1072), whose fees turned out to be too high for Marpa to afford. Drokmi had traveled to Nepal and India before Marpa and studied under many Buddhist teachers. He also translated many texts, but his specialization lay in the teachings on the Path and Result, or Lamdre (ལམ་འབྲས་), which he received from Gayadhāra (ག་ཡ་དྷ་ར་, 994–1043) and Prajñendraruci (aka Vīravajra, eleventh century). In Tibet, he passed on these teachings to his main disciples, including Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya school, which has championed the teachings of the Path and Result, of which bodhicitta is an essential component.

The bodhicitta teachings propagated by Marpa and Drokmi relied heavily on extensive new tantras such as the ''Hevajra'', ''Cakrasaṃvara'', and ''Guhyasamaja''. They promoted the concept of bodhicitta both in its ethical dimension as the compassionate intention to take all sentient beings to perfect enlightenment and its ontological dimension as the state of ultimate reality. The following statement from the ''Hevajratantra'' sums up this unity:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=That which is called bodhicitta
Is the nonduality of emptiness and compassion.<ref>སྟོང་ཉིད་སྙིང་རྗེ་དབྱེར་མེད་པ། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་རབ་ཏུ་བརྗོད། ། ''Hevajratantra'' (''Kye'i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D417, vol. 80, rgyud, nga, fol. 13a.3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0417.</ref>
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The tantric teachings of the newer Marpa Kagyu and Sakya schools also discuss what Dorji Wangchuk calls the "psycho-physiological form of bodhicitta"—referring to seminal bodily fluids within tantric practices that utilize physical and psychic energies as catalysts for speedy spiritual transformation.<ref>For this discussion in Wangchuk, see chapter 6 in ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 217–23.</ref> Thus, the discussion of bodhicitta in such tantric contexts saw new heights in Tibetan religious discourse as the tantric schools gained prominence and became mainstream Buddhist traditions in Tibet.

Another important tradition through which the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread in Tibet, although the tradition did not take off to the same extent as the Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, and Sakya, is the Shangpa Kagyu, which originated in the famous scholar and meditation master Khyungpo Naljor (Khyung po rnal 'byor, 1050–1127). Khyungpo Naljor visited India and Nepal around seven times and studied under numerous teachers, his main masters being the female savants Sukhasiddhi and Nāropa’s sister Niguma, from whom he received the Six Yogas of Niguma. Similarly, the practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through the tradition of Severance, or Chö (''གཅོད་''), which is said to have begun with Machik Labdron (མ་གཅིག་ལབ་སྒྲོན་, 1055–1149), and Pacification, or Zhije (''ཞི་བྱེད་''), a tradition attributed to Padampa Sangye (ཕ་དམ་པ་སངས་རྒྱས་, eleventh century). ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' by the brahmin Āryadeva, which is a root text of the Chöd tradition, states at the outset:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Take up with respect the practice of refuge and thought of enlightenment
Follow the precepts like protecting one’s eyes.
The precepts of the bodhisattva
Should not be abandoned even at the cost of one’s life. v.5<ref>གུས་པས་སྐྱབས་འགྲོ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་བླང་། །བླངས་པའི་བསླབ་བྱ་མིག་བཞིན་བསྲུང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་བསླབ་བྱ་ནི། །སྲོག་གི་ཕྱིར་ཡང་སྤང་མི་བྱ། ། Āryadeva, ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod (Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999), 14:2-3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:%27phags_pa_shes_rab_kyi_pha_rol_tu_phyin_pa%27i_man_ngag Retrieved on 4/6/2025.</ref>
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Similarly, Padampa Sangye, in one of his famous pieces of advice given to the local people in Dingri, states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The six realms of beings are precious as fields for gathering two accumulations.
Hold a loving mind and compassion, O Dingri people.<ref>ཚོགས་གཉིས་ཡུལ་དུ་རིགས་དྲུག་སེམས་ཅན་གཅེས། །བྱམས་སེམས་ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཟུངས་ཤིག་དིང་རི་བ། ། Padampa Sangye, ''Heart Advice Called The Stack of Lotus'' (''Thugs kyi zhal gdams pad+mo brtsegs pa''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod, 13:449, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Thugs_kyi_zhal_chems_pad_mo_brtsegs_pa#tab=null.</ref>
}}
The study and practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through other transmissions such as the Kālacakra (more specifically, the six branches of yogic practice associated with Kālacakra teachings) and through the three vajra accomplishment practice of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pel (ཨོ་རྒྱན་པ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1229–1309). These transmissions, along with the teachings and meditation techniques in the Nyingma, Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, Shangpa Kagyu, and Sakya schools, as well as the Severance and Pacification traditions, make up the "eight great chariots of practice" (''སྒྲུབ་བརྒྱུད་ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེ་བརྒྱད་'') and are considered to be the main practice lineages that formed during the Buddhist resurgence of the later diffusion period. It was through these traditions that the study and practice of bodhicitta, as an essential element of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, spread across Tibet.

== The Propagation of Bodhicitta Teachings in Tibet ==

=== The Nyingma School ===
As these Buddhist schools and their associated teachings and practices flourished from the eleventh century onward—having first developed in the eighth century—Tibet also witnessed the sustained spread of bodhicitta teachings. Among the Nyingma, we see the continuous transmission of bodhicitta study and practice both through the received ''kama'' tradition and the new ''terma'' revelations. While the rediscovered ''terma'' teachings focused primarily on ritual texts and meditation instructions that emphasized bodhicitta as a key practice, the ''kama'' tradition presented bodhicitta mainly as an ontological state representing ultimate reality. This was done through discourses on the ground nature, the path of pristine awareness, and the resultant state of the Buddha, all of which were presented as the nondual, innate, luminous nature of the mind.

The three inner tantras of the Nyingma—comprising Mahāyoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga—and the outer mind cycle, inner space cycle, and secret instruction cycle of the Atiyoga or Dzogchen teachings underscored the study and practice of bodhicitta as the innate nature of one’s mind. These tantric presentations were systematized and elaborated in the writings of leading Nyingma masters such as Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, mid-eleventh–early twelfth centuries), Longchenpa Drime Ozer (ཀློང་ཆེན་རབ་འབྱམས་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyel (མངའ་རིས་པཎ་ཆེན་པདྨ་དབང་རྒྱལ་, 1487–1542), Lochen Dharmaśrī (ལོ་ཆེན་དྷརྨ་ཤྲཱི་, 1654–1718), and Jigme Lingpa (འཇིགས་མེད་གླིང་པ་, 1739–1798). Rongzom and Longchenpa, for instance, carried out detailed discussions on bodhicitta in the context of the ultimate nature of the mind in Dzogchen thought, making them the greatest thinkers and masters of the Dzogchen system. In his treatise ''Entering the Way of the Mahāyāna'' (''ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་''), Rongzom discusses bodhicitta in detail and states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The base of all phenomena is included in the mind and appearances of the mind. The nature of the mind is awakening, thus it is called the mind of awakening.<ref>ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་རྩ་བ་ནི་སེམས་དང་སེམས་སྣང་བ་ཙམ་དུ་འདུས་ལ། སེམས་ཀྱི་རང་བཞིན་ཉིད་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཡིན་པས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་བྱའོ།། See Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po’i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:477.</ref>
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He also writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Here, bodhicitta is the cultivation of thought combining wisdom and compassion.<ref>དེ་ལ་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་ནི་འདིར་ཤེས་རབ་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་བསྡུས་པའི་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའོ།། Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po'i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:500.</ref>
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Rongzom, Longchenpa, and Lochen Dharmaśrī also commented on ''The Heart of Secret Tantra'' (''Guhyagarbhatantra''), which highlights the concept of bodhicitta as the innate nature of reality. Rongzom starts his commentary on this tantra with the claim that "bodhicitta is the essence of Three Jewels."<ref>དཀོན་མཆོག་གསུམ་གྱི་རང་བཞིན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Rongzom Chozang, ''Rgyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:33.</ref> With great emphasis on the higher tantric practices, the Nyingma masters vigorously took up the study and practice of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and as the pristine nonconceptual self-awareness of such nature.

The Nyingma masters also covered the concept of bodhicitta as the altruistic intention to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Among them, Longchenpa, who is unrivaled among the Nyingma masters in the systematization and synthesis of the Nyingma teachings in general and the Dzogchen system in particular, was perhaps the first one to discuss the theory and practice of relative bodhicitta in detail. He did this in two of his major works: ''The Treasury of Wish-fulfilling Jewels'' (''ཡིད་བཞིན་མཛོད་'')<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Yid bzhin mdzod rtsa ba'', in Mdzod bdun (a 'dzom par ma) (A 'dzom chos sgar: Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul dpal yul rdzong a 'dzom chos sgar, 1999), 1:3–88, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD8_31FD92.</ref> and ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' (''སེམས་ཉིད་ངལ་གསོ་'').<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:25–113, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_BEDB7A. For an English translation, see Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''Finding Rest in the Nature of the Mind'', vol. 1 of ''The Trilogy of Rest'', by Longchenpa (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, 2017).</ref> Like Rongzompa's description of bodhicitta as the essence of the Three Jewels, Longchenpa claims bodhicitta to be the root of all Dharma in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having become properly accustomed to the immeasurable thoughts,
One must cultivate the two types of bodhicitta, the root of all Dharma.<ref>དེ་ལྟར་ཚད་མེད་ལེགས་པར་གོམས་པ་ཡིས། །ཆོས་ཀུན་རྩ་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་གཉིས་བསྒོམ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes poʼi shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:46–47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
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He also defines bodhicitta in the following manner:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=To cultivate the [bodhicitta] thought is to desire
To reach the perfect buddha for the sake of limitless beings.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་ཚད་མེད་འགྲོ་བའི་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་སངས་རྒྱས་ཐོབ་པར་འདོད་པ་སྟེ། །སྨོན་དང་འཇུག་པའི་རང་བཞིན་གཉིས་ཡིན་ནོ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
}}
Closely following Longchenpa's elaborate discussion of bodhicitta—its definition, types, procedures for taking bodhicitta vow, and precepts—in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' and its two-volume commentary entitled ''The Great Chariot'' (''ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེན་པོ་''),<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'i 'grel pa shing rta chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), vols. 20–21, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref> Ngari Paṇchen carries out a clear and elaborate discussion of bodhicitta and bodhisattva ethics in his ''Ascertaining Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་པ་གསུམ་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ་''),<ref>See Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyal, ''Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'', in Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'i rtsa ba dang mchan 'grel rig pa 'dzin pa'i 'jug ngogs (Bylakuppe: Snga 'gyur mtho slob mdo sngags rig pa'i 'byung gnas, 1996), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23221. For an English translation of the root text, see Khenpo Gyurme Samdrub and Sangye Khandro, trans., ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'', by Ngari Paṇchen Wangyal, with commentary by Dudjom Rinpoche (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2014).</ref> on which Lochen Dharmaśrī wrote a commentary.<ref>See Lochen Dharmaśrī, ''Sdom gsum rtsa ba dang de'i 'grel pa dpag bsam snye ma sogs'' (Gser rta rdzong: Gser thang bla rung lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, n.d.), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN4872.</ref> Dharmaśrī also wrote a detailed explanation of the eighteen root downfalls or transgressions associated with the bodhisattva vow according to ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''. Similarly, Jigme Lingpa deliberated on bodhicitta in ''The Treasury of Precious Qualities'' (''ཡོན་ཏན་མཛོད་'') and in his autocommentary.<ref>See Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod dga' ba'i char'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (A 'dzom par ma: 'Brug spa gror bskyar par btab pa, 1990–1999), 1:29–166, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW7477_19AE1E.</ref>

The master most famous for championing the promotion of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, however, was Patrul Orgyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo (དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་ཨོ་རྒྱན་འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་ཀྱི་དབང་པོ་, 1808–1887). This wandering teacher reportedly taught ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' over a hundred times. His love for and expertise in this text was so remarkable that he was considered an incarnation of the Indian master Śāntideva by his contemporaries. Patrul held regular teaching retreats during which he would expound upon the text and also carry out the cultivation of bodhicitta. In this manner, he left behind a rich tradition of teaching and practicing bodhicitta in general and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in particular. He also authored the famous inspirational work entitled ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''ཀུན་བཟང་བླ་མའི་ཞལ་ལུང་།''),<ref>See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Kun bzang bla ma'i zhal lung'', part 1 and 2 (Kathmandu: Rigpe Dorje Institute, 2024), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-1-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-1/; https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-2-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-2/.</ref> which contains persuasive stories and teachings on compassion and bodhicitta. In one of his prayers, ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (''རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་མཆོག་ཏུ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའི་སྨོན་ལམ།''), he remarks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood.<ref> ཡོད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་དེས་ཆོག་ཅིང་། །མེད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་ཐབས་ཆག་པ། །སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་པའི་ས་བོན་མ་ནོར་བ། །རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་བསྐྱེད་པར་ཤོག ། For the Tibetan text, see Patrul Rinpoche, ''Rnam dag byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i smon lam'' (Lotsawa House, 2010, rev. 2012 & 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/patrul-rinpoche/aspiration-generate-bodhichitta. The translation belongs to Karma Phuntsho.</ref>
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Patrul's inspiration and influence spread beyond his own Nyingma school, especially with regard to his deep understanding and unparalleled expertise in teaching and practicing bodhicitta according to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. In the true spirit of Rime ecumenism of which he was a leading advocate, he would teach this text to different audiences, using the commentaries and giving interpretations which were most appropriate to each group. He did not compose a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as did many other Tibetan masters, but he wrote a guide for putting the text into practice and a powerful outline that captures the content and layout of the entire text with exceptional clarity and cohesion. Patrul became an immensely respected doyen for the study and practice of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', so much so that almost everyone studying and teaching the text after him embraced his lineage and traced their line of transmission to him.

Patrul's students recorded the gems of his insight into ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the commentary they put together. Among the many students who received teachings from him on bodhicitta was Orgyen Tenzin Norbu (ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་ནོར་བུ་, 1841?–1900?), who received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' from Patrul many times and taught it some two hundred times. Both he and Patrul taught Kunzang Palden (ཀུན་བཟང་དཔལ་ལྡན་, 1862–1943), who recorded their instructions in the extensive commentary entitled ''The Nectar of Mañjuśrī's Speech''.<ref>Kunzang Pelden, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i tshig 'grel 'jam dbyangs bla ma'i zhal lung bdud rtsi'i thigs pa'', in Gsung 'bum kun bzang dpal ldan, vol. 1 (Lama Ngodru and Sherab Demy, 1982), 5–746, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23946_57D951. For a bilingual version of the text with English translation by Padmakara, see this site: https://bodhicitta.tsadra.org/index.php/Books/The_Nectar_of_Manjushri%27s_Speech/Sabche.</ref> Another student, Jigme Chöphel Zangpo (འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་དཔལ་བཟང་པོ་, nineteenth century), received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' nine times from Patrul and compiled the notes from him on the first three and the tenth chapters. Minyak Kunzang Sonam (མི་ཉག་ཀུན་བཟང་བསོད་ནམས་, 1823–1905), a scholar from the Geluk tradition, also received teachings on the text nine times from Patrul and composed an extensive commentary.<ref>See Minyak Kunzang Sonam, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel bshad rgyal sras rgya mtsho'i yon tan rin po che mi zad 'jo ba'i bum bzang'', in ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang'' (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990), 1–584, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW15659.</ref>

A student of Patrul who left a significant legacy for the Nyingma tradition was Ju Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (འཇུ་མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912), probably Tibet's greatest polymath. Mipham wrote on a wide range of subjects and left behind an astounding thirty-two volumes covering almost all sciences known to him. His writings on Buddhist philosophy and practice, which contain the Nyingma understanding of Buddhist topics, form the core curriculum for scholastic study and meditation practice in the Nyingma tradition today. ''The Ketaka Gem'' (''ནོར་བུ་ཀེ་ཏ་ཀ་''), his commentary on the ninth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', which he wrote after he received teachings on it from Patrul, is a good example of his philosophical writing.<ref>See Mipham Gyatso, ''Spyod 'jug sher 'grel ke ta ka'' (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4996.</ref> While the text triggered polemical exchanges between him and his opponents, today it is widely read among followers of the Nyingma school. Mipham wrote a great deal on relative and ultimate bodhicitta in a number of his works in the context of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, including a commentary on Mañjuśrīmitra's ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta''.<ref>Mipham Gyatso, ''Byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun gyi mchan 'grel de kho na nyid gsal ba'i sgron me'', in Mi pham rgya mtsho'i gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Gangs can rig gzhung dpe rnying myur skyobs lhan tshogs, 2007), 23:63-95. See also https://online.adarshah.org/index.html?kdb=mipam&sutra=MP203&page=13-3-1ahttps://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun.</ref> The legacies of Patrul and Mipham continued through the works of their students and followers, who vigorously promoted the study and practice of bodhicitta.

The Kham region of Tibet experienced a remarkable renaissance of the Nyingma tradition during the era of the great masters of Patrul and Mipham. This renaissance, which involved many eminent figures, saw a massive burst of new scholarship and ''terma'' revelation as well as the compilation, classification, and reproduction of existing Nyingma literature. Simultaneously, there was also a revitalization of Nyingma monasticism and the development of scholastic activity through the new culture of ''shedra'' exegetical seminaries, which became vibrant centers of scholarship. The literary and institutional legacies left by this renaissance changed the trajectory of the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school.

It was ultimately the Rime movement led by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (འཇམ་དབྱངས་མཁྱེན་བརྩེའི་དབང་པོ་, 1820–1892), Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (འཇམ་མགོན་ཀོང་སྤྲུལ་བློ་གྲོས་མཐའ་ཡས་, 1813–1899), Patrul Rinpoche, and Mipham that had a significant impact on wider Buddhist study and practice. This movement came into being primarily to counteract the sectarian disputes and violence that frequently occurred between Tibetan Buddhist schools. Historical examples of violent sectarian conflicts include clashes between the Sakyapas and Drigungpas (thirteenth–fourteenth centuries), Kagyupas and Gelukpas (seventeenth century), and Nyingma and Geluk schools (eighteenth century). Moreover, the Gelukpa school with the political support of the Gaden Phodrang government had been extending their influence since the fifteenth century, leading to widespread religious prejudice and proselytization. In addition, the Rime masters had reservations about Gelukpa scholasticism, which was codified in individual college textbooks and professed through the eristic study of formulaic argumentation. Mipham particularly expressed such concern about the rigidity, verbosity, and aridity of Gelukpa scholasticism, which was founded on sophistic logic.

To stem this scholastic trend and the doctrinal controversies arising from partisan interpretations, the Rime teachers promoted the reorientation of religious study toward the Indian original texts and an eclectic approach to studying the essential teachings of all Tibetan traditions regardless of one's religious affiliation. This led to a restructuring of scholarly curricula in the ''shedra'' exegetical colleges and fostered some degree of interdenominational learning and teaching by the beginning of the twentieth century. To this effect, Khenpo Zhenga, or Zhenphen Chökyi Nangwa (གཞན་ཕན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྣང་བ་, 1871–1927), an ecumenical abbot of the ''shedra'' in Dzongsar, compiled commentaries on thirteen great classic Indian treatises, including ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yoga'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', which discuss bodhicitta and the bodhisattva path in detail. His commentaries, which are based on the writings by the Indian masters, came to be widely used as the core curriculum in the rising ''shedra'' colleges affiliated with the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya schools.

The study and practice of bodhicitta were flourishing in the scholastic and meditation centers when the People’s Liberation Army swept across Tibet. This was followed by the tragic Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). These events no doubt disrupted the scholarly pursuit of bodhicitta and gave ample opportunities for its practitioners to put it into practice in the face of overwhelming challenges and hardship. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, like in most other Tibetan Buddhist schools, recovered and reached new heights in large centers such as Namdroling Monastery in India and Larung Gar and Yachen in Tibet. These institutions attracted unprecedented numbers of students from Tibet and around the world, all of whom came to pursue Buddhist education through modernized monastic college programs that typically lasted nine years and covered topics such as bodhicitta in comprehensive detail.

=== The Kadam School ===
The Kadam school, which is considered the earliest of the ''sarma'', or new, schools, came to be known as a leading promoter of teachings on bodhicitta. Atiśa Dīpaṃkara is said to have combined in his teachings and practice both the Profound View and Vast Conduct traditions—the two main transmissions of Mahāyāna teachings in general and bodhicitta in particular. He received these transmissions from numerous masters such as Dharmarakṣita, Bodhibhadra, Dharmakīrti, Maitrīyogi, and Nāropa, and passed them down to numerous students, including his three main students—Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, who founded Reting Monastery, Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. The Kadam tradition became formalized as a tradition of seven divinity-dharmas (''བཀའ་གདམས་ལྷ་ཆོས་བདུན་ལྡན་''), which include Śākyamuni, Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, and Acala as four deities and the corpuses of Vinaya, Sūtra, and Abhidharma as the three dharmas.

The founding fathers of Kadam were succeeded by many influential masters, chief among whom were the aforementioned "three Kadam brothers"—Potowa Rinchen Sal, Chengawa Tsultrim Bar, and Phuchungwa Shönu Gyaltsen. As the Kadam tradition evolved, it also saw the development of two distinct lines of practice, especially in terms of the content and style of its teachings. Firstly, the Kadam tradition became a champion of the Lamrim, or stages of path, tradition. The Lamrim tradition revolved around Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', which covered the paths for persons of inferior, middling, and superior capacities. This was supplemented by the six treatises of Kadam (''བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་''), which they adopted as their core scriptural sources. They included Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'', Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''Compendium of Training'', Āryaśūra's ''Garland of Birth Stories'' (''Jātakamāla''),<ref>Āryaśūra, ''Jātakamāla'', in Derge Tengyur D4150, vol. 168, skyes rab, hu, 1b1-135a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4150.</ref> and ''The Collection of Aphorisms'' (''Udānavarga''),<ref>''Udānavarga'' (''Ched du brjod pa'i tshoms''), in Derge Kangyur D326, vol. 72, mdo sde, sa 209a1–253a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0326.</ref> attributed to the historical Buddha. These texts became the main treatises for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Kadam tradition.

Among the early Tibetan ''lamrim'' texts were Potowa's ''Blue Booklet'' (བེའུ་བུམ་སྔོན་མོ།), works by Gönpawa Wangchuk Gyaltsen (དགོན་པ་བ་དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1016–1082) that drew directly from Atiśa's teachings, and texts by Ngok Lekpai Sherap that were based on the teachings of Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung. Stressing the importance of bodhicitta, Potowa, as quoted by Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361), states in ''The Blue Booklet'',
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Knowing them to be just like oneself,
Treat everyone with love and compassion.
By doing so, if one upholds bodhicitta,
Therein lies each and every dharma.<ref>བདག་ཅི་འདྲ་བ་དེ་འདྲར་ཤེས་པས། །ཀུན་ལ་བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་འཇུག་བྱ། །དེས་བསྐྱེད་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དང་ལྡན་ན། །དེ་ལ་ཆོས་རྣམས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀུན་གནས། ། Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, ''Bka' gdams kyi man ngag be'u bum sngon mo'i rtsa 'grel (Lhasa, Sertsu Nangten Penying Tsholdu Chokdrikhang, 2016), 24, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG25234.</ref>
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Potowa also composed ''The Teaching in Similes'' (དཔེ་ཆོས།), which contains similes, sayings, and stories from folk culture employed to illustrate the points related to the spiritual path. Around the same time, a set of literary compositions on the spiritual path closely related to the ''lamrim'' called ''tenrim'' (བསྟན་རིམ་), or stages of the doctrine, developed. ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Doctrine'' (བསྟན་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ།) by Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne (གྲོ་ལུང་པ་བློ་གྲོས་འབྱུང་གནས་, eleventh century) is perhaps the earliest one.<ref>See Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne, ''Bstan rim chen mo'' (Delhi: Norbu Kharphigsi Publications, 2014), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG24221.</ref> These books, in contrast to works in the ''lamrim'' genre which lay out the path for the persons of three capacities, discuss the different teachings in the Buddhist system, taking an inclusive and cohesive approach in order to reconcile the diverse teachings. Some scholars understood the terms ''lamrim'' and ''tenrim'' to be synonyms, but others differentiated the two and considered ''tenrim'' to refer to public discourses and ''lamrim'' to refer to personalized private instructions.

Whatever the case, the approach of seeing all teachings as noncontradictory, understanding all scriptures as pith instructions, fathoming the intent of the Buddha easily, and absolving evil actions spontaneously are seen as the four special qualities of the Kadam tradition. With such an open and inclusive approach, the Kadam master generally embraced all Buddhist teachings. Yet, this did not entail a monotonous and homogenous system. Based on their specializations, the adherents of the Kadam school became divided into the tradition of scriptures (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་པ་) associated with Potowa and the tradition of oral and didactic pith instructions (བཀའ་གདམས་མན་ངག་པ་) associated with Chengawa, the latter further divided by some into essential instructions and oral instructions. In the cases of both the scriptural and instructional traditions, there were numerous other methods, styles, and techniques for presenting the teachings. Potowa favored approaching the teachings through mindfulness of the Buddha, Puchungwa through dependent origination, and Chengawa through the four noble truths. Within a couple generations of its diffusion, the Lamrim tradition of the Kadam school generated numerous commentaries and instructional texts while developing diverse approaches and styles for practicing the ''lamrim'' teachings.

The second most important component of Kadam study and practice was the tradition of Mind Training, or Lojong. Atiśa received various texts and techniques for mind training from his Indian teachers and passed them on to his main disciples, who in turn passed them on to their disciples. The pith instructions for mind training were mostly transmitted as secret teachings (ལྐོག་ཆོས་) in private sessions. Potowa passed down the ''lojong'' transmissions to Sharawa Yönten Drak (ཤ་ར་ཡོན་ཏན་གྲགས་, 1070–1141), whose disciple Tumtön Lodrö Drak (གཏུམ་སྟོན་བློ་གྲོས་གྲགས་, ca. 1106–1166) founded the famous Kadam center of Narthang in 1153, and to Langri Thangpa (གླང་རི་ཐང་པ་, 1054–1123), who composed ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' (''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'').<ref>See Langri Thangpa, ''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'', in Blo sbyong nyer mkho phyogs bsgrigs, ed. Ngag dbang sbyin pa and Cha ris skal bzang thogs med (Kan su: Kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 172–73, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW25275_54767F.</ref> Sharawa passed the instructions on to Chekawa Yeshe Dorje ('Chad kha ba ye shes rdo rje, 1101–1175), who established Cheka Monastery and composed the famous ''Seven-Point Mind Training'' (''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'').<ref>See Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, ''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'i rtsa tshig sogs'', Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1NLM668.</ref> The transmission of ''lojong'' from Chekawa branched into northern and southern traditions and spread widely, with the cultivation of ultimate and relative bodhicitta as its core.

As the Kadam tradition evolved with its wealth of ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' teachings, its main historical records, teachings, and practices were compiled in ''The Book of Kadam'' (''བཀའ་གདམས་གླེགས་བམ་བཏུས་པའི་ཆོས་སྐོར་'').<ref>See Thupten Jinpa, ed., ''Bka' gdams glegs bam las btus pa'i chos skor'' (Delhi: Bod gyi gtsug lag zhib dpyod khang, 2005), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12514. For an English translation, see Thubten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008).</ref> With ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' by Atiśa at its core, the book contains sections called "Father Teachings," which are composed of questions and answers between Atiśa and Dromtönpa, and "Son Teachings," made up of questions and answers between Atiśa and Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. In the chapter discussing how all problems lie in the sole point of self-attachment—an important topic of meditation in the Lojong tradition—Atiśa asks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text="In that case, do you understand the mind's true mode of being?"

"Yes, I do," replied Drom.

Atiśa: "So what need is there of desires for this mind; cultivate contentment. Even though you perceive many sentient beings, all of them are your fathers and mothers who have taken joy in your overcoming of misfortune and [attainment] of good fortune. They have cleaned your runny nose with their mouths, your excrement with their hands, have nurtured you with kingdoms and with gifts, and some, despite having been abandoned [by us], have cared for us again. It is due to the kindness of the teacher that positive qualities are revealed. In general, it is the teacher who has done you the great kindness of granting you your ultimate aim. And it is your parents who are the source of great kindness granting you joy and happiness in this life. You should therefore recognize their kindness and repay their kindness.

"For this, serve the teacher through respectful veneration and meditative practice, and toward your parents, in order to repay their kindness, cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable joy when they are happy, and immeasurable equanimity that is free of discriminating thoughts of near and distant. For the benefit of all—all your mothers—strive as much as possible to attain buddhahood and, discarding lingering doubts, cherish your persistence in meditative practice. Abandoning all obstacles such as sloth, mental dullness, and laziness, endeavor with joyful perseverance.

"Drom, although one speaks of "recognizing the kindness of others and repaying it," it all seems to pertain to the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, such as loving-kindness and compassion; the stabilization of the awakening mind; its enhancement from high to ever higher levels; and the definite steering of one's parents with the paddles of [the two awakening minds,] aspirational and engaging."<ref>Thunten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 125–26.</ref>
}}
These passages and the many texts and teachings in the Lamrim and Lojong traditions of the Kadam school sufficiently demonstrate how bodhicitta forms the bedrock of the Kadam tradition and how the school came to champion its propagation. We also see the gradual development of the structures and procedures for practice, such as the seven instructions of cause and effect.

In addition to its strong practical orientation, the theoretical and philosophical study of bodhicitta also flourished within the Kadam school. This took place mainly through the scholastic education at Sangpu Neutok, the monastic college which was founded by Ngok Lekpai Sherab in 1072 and which rose to be a prominent Kadam center of learning some fifty years after its founding. At its peak, Sangpu Neutok was the most well-known center for scholastic education in Tibet, with alumni that included the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (དུས་གསུམ་མཁྱེན་པ་, 1110–1193), Longchenpa Drime Özer (ཀློང་ཆེན་པ་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (ཙོང་ཁ་པ་བློ་བཟང་གྲགས་པ་, 1357–1419), and Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (རོང་སྟོན་ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་རིག་, 1367–1449), who went to Sangpu for debate sessions. Some forty-five great masters such as Ngok Loden Sherab (རྔོག་བློ་ལྡན་ཤེས་རབ་, 1059–1109), Chapa Chökyi Senge (ཕྱ་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སེང་གེ་, 1109–1169), Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo (ཕག་མོ་གྲུ་པ་རྡོ་རྗེ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1110–1170), Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), Patsab Nyima Drakpa (པ་ཚབ་ཉི་མ་གྲགས་པ་, twelfth century) worked at Sangpu, making it a wonderful enclave of scholarship. Bodhicitta was rigorously studied through lectures, debates, and writing on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', and many other texts.

Another Kadam center where both the theoretical study and practical application of the teachings flourished and where a combination of both the tradition of scriptures and oral instructions thrived was Narthang, located in the Tsang region. Narthang produced great scholars such as Chim Namkha Drak (མཆིམས་ནམ་མཁའ་གྲགས་, 1210–1285), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་, 1219–1299), and Chomden Rikpai Raldri (བཅོམ་ལྡན་རིག་པའི་རལ་གྲི་, 1297–1305), who wrote commentaries on texts discussing bodhicitta and also composed practice manuals for its cultivation. Scholarship on bodhicitta flourished in the Kadam tradition. Some two dozen works, including full commentaries and short treatises, were written on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' alone by authors including Gyamar Jangchub Drak (རྒྱ་དམར་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་གྲགས་, eleventh–twelfth century), Chapa Chökyi Senge, Tsangnakpa Tsöndru Senge (གཙང་ནག་པ་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེང་གེ་, twelfth century), Drotön Dutsi Drak (གྲོ་སྟོན་བདུད་རྩི་གྲགས་, 1153–1232), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, Lodöe Tsungme (བློ་གྲོས་མཚུངས་མེད་, thirteenth century), and Kyitön Drakpa Gyaltsen (སྐྱི་སྟོན་གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, thirteenth century).

An outstanding Kadam luminary of his time was Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཐོགས་མེད་བཟང་པོ་, 1295–1369) of Ngulchu, particularly in terms of teaching and practicing bodhicitta. After studying in Sakya, Bodong, and Shalu Monasteries, Tokme Zangpo composed commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>See, for example, Gyalse Tokme Zangpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel pa legs bshad rgya mtsho'' (Them bu: Kun bzang stobs rgyas, 1975), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12289.</ref> and ''The Seven-Point Mind Training'',<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Commentary on the Seven Points of Mind Training'', by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (Lotsawa House, 2018), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/gyalse-thogme-zangpo/commentary-on-seven-points-mind-training.</ref> but his most significant contribution was ''The Thirty-Seven Bodhisattva Practices'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma''),<ref>See Tokme Zangpo, ''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'' (Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1988), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN15679.</ref> which today ranks among the most popular and influential texts for the study and practice of the path of the bodhisattva. Through these centers and masters, the study and practice of bodhicitta spread widely among the followers of the Kadam school.

The old Kadam tradition gradually declined in the fourteenth century but found a new manifestation in the new Gandenpa school of Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa. An influential monk, literary star, and master meditator, Tsongkhapa gave fresh life to the Kadam school but also departed from some of its old philosophical positions. He composed ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment'' (''ལམ་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ་''),<ref>Tsongkhapa, ''Lam rim chen mo'', in Gsung 'bum tsong kha pa (Zhol) (New Delhi: Mongolian Lama Guru Deva, 1978–1979), 13:39–1084, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW635_093BB6.</ref> a medium-length work on the ''lamrim'' (''ལམ་རིམ་འབྲིང་པོ་''), and a condensed work on the ''lamrim'' called ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'' (''ལམ་གཙོ་རྣམ་གསུམ་'').<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'', by Je Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (Lotsawa House, 2006, rev. 2012), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/bo/tibetan-masters/tsongkhapa/three-principal-aspects.</ref> He also composed works on ''lojong'', presenting a synthesized and structured theory as well as procedures for practice. By then, the old Kadam school declined as its teachings were incorporated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly the new Geluk school, which emerged as a reformed version of the Kadam school to carry on its legacies.

Toward the end of Tsongkhapa's life, the main seat of Ganden Monastery was established, followed soon by the founding of Sera and Drepung. These large monastic centers housed thousands of monks and carried out the rigorous study of bodhicitta in the context of their specific college curriculum (''ཡིག་ཆ་''). The authors of the ''yigcha'' such as Sonam Drakpa (བསོད་ནམས་གྲགས་པ་, 1478–1554), Jamyang Zhepa (འཇམ་དབྱངས་བཞད་པ་, 1648–1721), and Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (རྗེ་བཙུན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1469–1544) presented the definition, divisions, and benefits of bodhicitta during their deliberations on various Buddhist philosophical and moral topics. In fact, bodhicitta is the first of the seventy topics they studied as part of their long course on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. However, these monasteries did not include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' or ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' in their curriculum and study of these texts was carried out separately outside of the monastic curriculum.

Besides the authors of the curriculum, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the new Geluk school was also promoted by the successive Dalai Lamas, Paṇchen Lamas, and Ganden Tripas, as well as by the abbots and other geshes of the three main seats (Ganden, Sera, and Drepung) and the two tantric colleges. The First Dalai Lama, Gedun Drup (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་, 1391–1474), and the First Paṇchen Lama, Lobzang Chökyi Gyaltsen (བློ་བཟང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1570–1662), both wrote on ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' practices. Other inspirational Geluk figures such as Changkya Rolpai Dorje (ལྕང་སྐྱ་རོལ་པའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1717–1786) and Könchok Tenpai Drönme (དཀོན་མཆོག་བསྟན་པའི་སྒྲོན་མེ་, 1762–1823) wrote specific works on the cultivation of bodhicitta. Könchok Tenpai Drönme, for example, presents instructions on how to first cultivate relative bodhicitta, then ultimate bodhicitta, and finally how the two work together. In his instructions for practicing the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, he pretends to be in a debate with selfishness, which he refutes using different arguments.

The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Geluk school, like all other traditions in Tibet, went through tumultuous changes beginning in the middle of the twentieth century with the arrival of the People's Liberation Army and continuing through the Cultural Revolution. For over three decades, the study of bodhicitta in the Geluk school went through its darkest chapter, though many masters did excel in the practice of bodhicitta in the face of severe atrocities.

The bodhicitta teachings were soon revived in India through the establishment of monastic centers for education and practice by Tibetans who had fled Tibet following the upheavals of the 1960s and 70s. These efforts were crowned by the enthusiasm and commitment of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as a global paragon of wisdom and compassion. With dozens of books in multiple languages and public sermons attended by tens of thousands of people, he and his students took the teachings of bodhicitta to an unprecedented level by spreading the teachings across the globe. At the same time, the Geluk tradition also actively adopted the transmission of bodhicitta teachings that were passed down from Patrul Rinpoche. These came via two main lines: through Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen (ཁུ་ནུ་བླ་མ་བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1894?–1977) to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, and through Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823–1905), who wrote an extensive commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' based on Patrul's teachings.

=== The Kagyu School ===
The teachings on bodhicitta coming from the Kadam school were also passed down through the Marpa Kagyu school. The focus of Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012–1097) and his disciple Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040–1123) remained on the esoteric tantric teachings that Marpa brought from India, having received them from teachers such as Nāropa and Maitrīpa. However, Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (སྒམ་པོ་པ་བསོད་ནམས་རིན་ཆེན་, 1079–1153), the third founding father of the Kagyu tradition from the Dakpo region of Tibet, combined the esoteric tantric teachings he received from Milarepa with the Kadam teachings he had received before becoming Milarepa's disciple.<ref>The school later took its new name Dakpo Kagyu after him.</ref> Thus, we see an effective pairing of the relative bodhicitta teachings from the Kadam tradition with the teachings on ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric texts and ''mahāmudrā'' transmission.

This synthesis by Gampopa is best seen in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (''དམ་ཆོས་ཡིད་བཞིན་ནོར་བུ་ཐར་པ་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་རྒྱན་''), which condenses the entire path to buddhahood into six topics, which he puts in the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The buddha-nature is the cause,
Precious and supreme human body, the support,
The virtuous master is the agent,
And his instructions, the expedient technique.
The result is the body of the perfect Buddha,
Who engages in actions for the world with no thought.<ref>རྒྱུ་ནི་བདེ་གཤེགས་སྙིང་པོ་སྟེ། །རྟེན་ནི་མི་ལུས་རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག །རྐྱེན་ནི་དགེ་བའི་བཤེས་གཉེན་ཡིན། །ཐབས་ནི་དེ་ཡི་གདམས་ངག་སྟེ། །འབྲས་བུ་རྫོགས་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྐུ། །ཕྲིན་ལས་རྟོག་མེད་འགྲོ་དོན་མཛད། ། Gampopa Sonam Rinchen, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'' (Thimphu: KMT, 2005), 3.</ref>
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Gampopa discusses both relative and ultimate bodhicitta in some detail in this work, stating concisely that the objects of relative bodhicitta are the state of enlightenment and sentient beings, and that ultimate bodhicitta is the realization of emptiness endowed with compassion that is clear, unperturbed, and free from mental elaborations.<ref>Gampopa, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'', 133 and 137.</ref> He then presents the procedures to obtain the bodhisattva vow, the precepts to follow, the definition and types of bodhicitta, and a detailed treatment of the six perfections as applied bodhicitta. This work would remain a core text for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Dakpo Kagyu tradition.

The four chief disciples of Gampopa started the four Kagyu schools and spread the teachings on bodhicitta. They include the aforementioned Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, who founded the Pakdru Kagyu; Barompa Darma Wangchuk (འབའ་རོམ་པ་དར་མ་དབང་ཕྱུག་, 1127–1199/1200), who established the Barom Kagyu; the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, who established the Karma Kagyu; and Zhang Yudrakpa (ཞང་གཡུ་བྲག་པ་, 1123–1193), who established the Tselpa Kagyu. Pakmodrupa is said to have viewed himself as a servant of all sentient beings and to have lived a life committed to strict morality and service to others. He wrote several works on bodhicitta, including a commentary on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows''<ref>Phakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, ''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa bzhugs pa'i dbu phyogs'', in Gsung 'bum phag mo gru pa rdo rje rgyal po (bris ma), (ga), 27–48, Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG15061_A5D6A7.</ref> and a treatise entitled ''Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva'', not to be confused with Śāntideva's work, although they have the same title in Tibetan. In another text called ''The Great Pearl Garland'' (''སེམས་བསྐྱེད་མུ་ཏིག་ཕྲེང་ཆེན་''), he wrote in praise of bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Other intentions and precepts are like well-cooked food but thoughts and precepts concerning bodhicitta are like the celestial cake with a hundred tastes. The mass of other merits is like a ruler from a castle, while bodhicitta is like the universal monarch ruling over all gods and men. The merit accrued from other virtues is like the light of a firefly, while the merit of bodhicitta is like the blazing disc of the sun.<ref>Pakmodrupa, ''Sems bskyed mu tig phreng chen'', in Gsung 'bum rdo rje rgyal po (N.p: N.p, 1998), 1:571–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23860_764630.</ref>
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Pakmodrupa's eight chief disciples took the teachings further by founding eight subschools of the Pakdru Kagyu. Among them are figures such as Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (འཇིག་རྟེན་མགོན་པོ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1143–1217), who founded the Drikung Kagyu, Lingrepa Pema Dorje (གླིང་རས་པ་པདྨ་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1128–1188), whose disciple Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (གཙང་པ་རྒྱ་རས་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1161–1211) founded the Drukpa Kagyu, and Taklungtangpa Tashi Pal (སྟག་ལུང་ཐང་པ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་དཔལ་, 1142–1209/1210). Jikten Gönpo established Drikung Thil, had a large following, and also wrote many texts on the cultivation of bodhicitta. ''The Experiential Hymns on the Fivefold Mahāmudrā'' (''ཕྱག་རྒྱ་ཆེན་པོ་ལྔ་ལྡན་གྱི་རྟོགས་པའི་མགུར་'') is perhaps the most well-known work. Only five verses, it starts with the following:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If the steed of love and compassion
Does not run for the benefit of others,
It will not be rewarded in the assembly of gods and humans.
Attend, therefore, to the preliminaries.<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེའི་རྟ་ཕོ་ལ། །གཞན་ཕན་གི་དཀྱུས་ཐོག་མ་བཅད་ན། །ཁྲོམ་ལྷ་མིའི་འོར་ཆེ་མི་འབྱུང་བས། །སེམས་སྔོན་འགྲོ་འདི་ལ་ནན་ཏན་མཛོད།།. See Karma Phuntsho, trans., ''Jikten Sumgön's Fivefold Path of Mahāmudrā'' (''Phyag rgya chen po lnga ldan rtogs pa'i mgur''), Buddha-Nature: A Tsadra Foundation Project, recent essays, posted October 2021, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Recent_Essays/Post-50.</ref>
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Like Jikten Gönpo, Tsangpa Gyare, the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu, became a highly influential Kagyu master and spread the teachings on bodhicitta widely. He is said to have sent many waves of students across the Himalayas so that the Drukpa Kagyu teachings could spread across vast distances—as far as a vulture can fly in eighteen days. It has been said in a highly exaggerated claim that half of humanity are followers of the Drukpa Kagyu tradition, half of them paupers, and half of the paupers accomplished saints. The upper Drukpas, went another panegyrical claim, are as many as stars in the sky, the lower Drukpas are as many as the particles of dust on the earth, and the middle Drukpa tradition has 2500 leading hierarchs who are entitled to parasols over their head. No doubt, the teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread widely through the works of Tsangpa Gyare and his followers. Tsangpa Gyare remarked in one of his pieces of advice:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If bodhicitta is not cultivated, all meritorious activities, like an offering of flour to demons will throw one to the currents of worldly concerns.<ref>བྱང་སེམས་རྒྱུད་ལ་མ་སྐྱེས་ན། །བསོད་ནམས་བདུད་ཀྱི་ཕྱེ་གཏོར་འདིས། །ཆོས་བརྒྱད་ཆུ་ལ་བསྐུར་ཉེན་གདའ། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''<i>'</i>Gro mgon rin po che's gsung mgur gyi rim pa'', in 'Gro ba’i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23782_A9B6DF.</ref>
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"If one had compassion like a shepherd," he said, "one would care for both the good and bad."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེ་ལུག་རྫི་འདྲ་ན་བཟང་ངན་མེད་པར་བསྐྱང་སྟེ་མཆི། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''Tsogs chos mno ‘khor ma che ba'', in 'Gro ba'i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 9b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN2232_A2AF3F.</ref>

A leading disciple of Gampopa was Dusum Khyenpa, who established a lineage that became highly influential in Tibetan religion and politics. He was later recognized as the First Karmapa. Dusum Khyenpa founded Tsurphu Monastery in Tibet and had a great following. He taught that Dharma is about benefiting sentient beings and emphasized the importance of loving-kindness and compassion as part of the Mahāyāna path. But it was his successors who excelled in the scholarship on bodhicitta theory and practice. The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (ཀརྨ་པཀྵི་, 1204–1283), mentioned bodhicitta in his writings, but Rangjung Dorje (རང་བྱུང་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1284–1339 ), the Third Karmapa, wrote many important works on ultimate bodhicitta. These included books on the perfection of wisdom, which covered the empty aspect of ultimate bodhicitta, and books on buddha-nature, which covered the luminous aspect of ultimate bodhicitta.

Among the seventeen Karmapas who have become heads of the Kamtsang Kagyu school so far, the Eighth Karmapa, Mikyö Dorje, wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' in which he discusses bodhicitta. He also composed many other short manuals and instructions for bodhicitta practice such as ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang sems kyi khrid'', In Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa: 2004), 19:383–98, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_5E5C5A.</ref> ''Cultivation of Bodhicitta in One Night'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang chub kyi sems sgom tshul zhag gcig ma'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:331–34, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_DE0419.</ref> and ''Instructions for Mind Training''.<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Blo sbyong gi khrid'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:281–96, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_C222BF.</ref> In ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'', he presents guidance on how to generate bodhicitta using a dialogue between Maitreya and Maitrīyogi as the main text. In it, he also gives instructions on how to combine the cultivation of bodhicitta with breathing. Mikyö Dorje also wrote the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka, Cittamātra, and Vajrayāna traditions.

Another major author on bodhicitta belonging to the Kamtshang Kagyu subschool was Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (དཔའ་བོ་གཙུག་ལག་ཕྲེང་བ་, 1504–1564), a historian and commentator on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Besides his commentary on this classical text on bodhicitta, he also authored liturgies for taking the bodhisattva vows for both relative and ultimate bodhicitta and instructions on how to turn both positive and negative life experiences into opportunities for mind training.

The sixteenth century saw another major Kagyu figure belonging to the Drukpa Kagyu subschool. Pema Karpo (པདྨ་དཀར་པོ་, 1527–1592), the Fourth Drukchen of the Drukpa Kagyu school, wrote commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>Pema Karpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'bru 'grel dbu ma'i lam gyi sgron ma'' (Nepal: Shree Gautam Buddha Vihara, 2017), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/a-lamp-for-the-middle-way/.</ref> and ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. He also composed a treatise on the three vows, the second chapter of which deals with the bodhisattva vow and precepts. He also wrote texts related to the lamrim stages of the path to enlightenment and many works on ''mahāmudrā'', which deal with the ultimate form of bodhicitta.

In the nineteenth century, a major Kagyu figure to champion all traditions of Tibetan Buddhist teachings, including the study and practice of bodhicitta, was Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (1813–1899). As a leading promoter of the Rime ecumenical movement in eastern Tibet alongside his teacher and colleague Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892), Kongtrul produced the five great treasuries, including The Treasury of Kagyu Tantras (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད་སྔགས་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Revealed Treasures (རིན་ཆེན་གཏེར་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Instructions (གདམས་ངག་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Knowledge (ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་ཁྱབ་མཛོད་), and The Treasury of Extensive Teachings (རྒྱ་ཆེན་བཀའ་མཛོད་). While the first three are mainly compilations of existing teachings, Kongtrul added many supplements to enrich the collections. In the Treasury of Instructions, he put together the rare and important meditation instructions of all major Tibetan Buddhist transmissions and also composed many instructions and liturgies himself. A good example of this is his composition of the liturgy to take the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka tradition as received via Śāntideva. The two last collections mainly consist of his own encyclopedic writings and include his commentary on Chekawa Yeshe Dorje's ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' and his ''Aspirational Prayer for Mind Training''.

The last great Kagyupa/Nyingmapa promoter of bodhicitta in India in the twentieth century was Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, although he was also more aligned to the Rime ecumenical tradition than a specific sect. Born in North India with deep knowledge of its languages and cultures, and trained in Tibet before Buddhism's decline there, Khunu Rinpoche was uniquely positioned to preserve and transmit bodhicitta teachings during Tibet's takeover by the People's Liberation Army and the subsequent refugee exodus. At such a critical moment, Khunu Rinpoche passed on the profound teachings on bodhicitta to his students, the most eminent among them being the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as the unparalleled paragon of bodhicitta study and practice in modern times. Khunu Rinpoche also composed his very deep and poetic treatise on bodhicitta entitled ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta''.<ref>See Khunu Lama, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, n.d), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ369499.</ref>

Around the same time, another prominent Kagyu master to promote bodhicitta through his writings was Gedun Rinchen (དགེ་འདུན་རིན་ཆེན་, 1926–1997), the sixty-ninth Je Khenpo, or Chief Abbot, of Bhutan. Gedun Rinchen wrote commentaries on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', notes on ''The Way of the Bodisattva'', and several short works on the cultivation of both relative and ultimate bodhicitta. He is perhaps the first Bhutanese author to also write extensively on topics related to bodhicitta, although several other Bhutanese would do so in the twenty-first century. Today, traditional scholarship on bodhicitta among the Kagyu school thrives with an unprecedented number of scholars and masters writing and teaching both in the Himalayan Buddhist areas and in the diaspora.

=== The Sakya School ===
The Sakya school was founded by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102) with the establishment of Sakya center in the Tsang region of Tibet in 1073. In subsequent generations, the school evolved to become renowned for their scholarship and their dedicated practice of the Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on the Path and Result in particular. This was also true with regard to their study and practice of bodhicitta. According to the tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (ས་ཆེན་ཀུན་དགའ་སྙིང་པོ་, 1092–1158), the son of Könchok Gyalpo and the first of the five eminent ancestors of Sakya, is said to have had a vision of Mañjuśrī in which he received the teachings known as ''Parting from the Four Attachments'' (''ཞེན་པ་བཞི་བྲལ་'').<ref>See Ngor pa dpon slob blo gter dbang po, ed., ''Zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Rgyud sde kun btus (glog klad par ma) (Kathmandu: Sachen International, Guru Lama, 2004), 23:727–30, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW27883_DDE525.</ref> The teaching went as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If you are attached to this life, you are not a true spiritual practitioner;
If you are attached to saṃsāra, you have no renunciation;
If you are attached to your own self-interest, you have no bodhicitta;
If there is grasping, you do not have the View.<ref>Rigpa Translations, trans., ''Instruction on Parting from the Four Attachments'', by Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (Lotsawa House, 2011), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/jetsun-drakpa-gyaltsen/parting-four-attachments.</ref>
}}
The third point on parting from the attachment to self-interest underscored the importance of the practice of bodhicitta and compassion in the Sakya spiritual practice. A generation after him, his son Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), who got trained at Sangpu Neutok under the illustrious scholar Chapa Chökyi Senge, carried on the scholarly tradition of Sakya and composed a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel pa'', in ''<i>'</i>Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung'', ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po (Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 68:20–209, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_A992FA.</ref> The younger son, Drakpa Gyaltsen (གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1147–1216), carried on the tradition and composed a summary of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum, reprinted from a set of Derge Parkhang woodblocks (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992-1993), 9:553–91, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_21D2B6.</ref> instructions on ''Parting from the Four Attachments'',<ref>See ''Rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan gyis mdzad pa'i zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Gdams ngag mdzod (Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1979–1981), 6:310–14, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20877_835B23.</ref> a manual for taking the refuge and bodhisattva vows,<ref>See ''Chos spyod rin chen phreng ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:511–46, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_BAE593.</ref> and an exegesis on ''The Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow''.<ref>See Sachen Kunga Nyingpo and Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa gsal bar ston pa shlo ka nyi shu pa'i rnam par bshad pa'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:547–604, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_4967BB.</ref>

The greatest scholar among the five sublime ancestors of Sakya, however, was Ngawang Kunga Gyaltsen, who is popularly known as Sakya Paṇḍita or Sakya Paṇchen (ས་སྐྱ་པཎྜི་ཏ་, 1182–1251). A scholar of exceptional caliber, Sakya Paṇḍita composed many original works, some of which discuss bodhicitta. These include ''Distinguishing the Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་གསུམ་རབ་དབྱེ་''),<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:1–96, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' (''ཐུབ་པའི་དགོངས་པ་རབ་ཏུ་གསལ་བ་''),<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:9–206, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> a liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow, and a collection of scriptural citations to substantiate the points related to bodhicitta.<ref>See ''Dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi cho ga'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:467–503, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_1F51EB and ''Byang chub kyi mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga'i lung sbyor'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:503–24, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_A6BF74.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita bestowed the bodhisattva vow according to the Middle Way tradition and followed this with teachings on ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' so that one's bodhicitta would not decrease but would increase. Yet, it was generally his critical and polemical discourses on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta that often attracted the greatest attention from scholars and readers. For instance, he argued that not all bodhisattva aspiration prayers would come true, for if they did, bodhisattvas would be constantly inflicted by the pain and suffering that they prayed would fall on them. However, he accepted the essential role that bodhicitta played in Buddhist soteriology. "If one mishandles the crux of bodhicitta, other dharma cannot make one fully enlightened,"<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་གནད་འཆུགས་ན། །ཆོས་གཞན་གྱིས་ནི་འཚང་མི་རྒྱ། ། ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:33, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> he argued. Furthermore, he writes,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If one has bodhicitta and skill in means,
Even if one indulges in the five sensory objects,
Such an act becomes an act of great virtue for a bodhisattva.
It is considered as sin by the hearers.<ref>འདོད་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་ལྔར་སྤྱོད་ཀྱང་། །ཐབས་མཁས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ལྡན་ན། །རྒྱལ་སྲས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ཆེན་ཡིན། །ཉན་ཐོས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་སྡིག་པར་གསུངས། ། See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref>
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In his ''Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' and the liturgy on the bodhisattva vow, he presents a brief historical account of the two main Mahāyāna traditions, a clear account of bodhicitta and its types, the ritual for receiving the bodhisattva vow, and the precepts that follow.<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita was succeeded by his nephew Chögyal Pakpa (ཆོས་རྒྱལ་འཕགས་པ་, 1235–1280), who followed his uncle to China and later became the court priest and tutor of Kubilai Khan. Chögyal Pakpa is said to have given the bodhicitta vow to large gatherings of 70,000 people during the Chumik convention in 1270 and to have also administered it to his Mongol disciples in the Yuan court.

The Sakya school, put in place by the five great masters, continued to grow through the works of many great figures on the Tibetan intellectual scene and the many monasteries and centers they founded. In the generation after Chögyal Pakpa, we see the rise of Butön Rinchen Drub (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་, 1290–1364), a Sakya scholar who became the head of Shalu Monastery and was also responsible for the compilation of the first Kangyur and Tengyur canons, today referred to as the Old Narthang Kangyur and Tengyur. Butön left behind a prodigious oeuvre that includes a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa byang chub kyi sems gsal bar byed pa zla ba'i 'od zer'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19:193–614, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_11394D.</ref> a summary of it,<ref>See ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19: 147–92, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_B2DED5.</ref> and a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''.<ref>''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rgya cher bshad pa lung gi snye ma'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy Of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 18:13–740, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_850C4C</ref> He also wrote one of the earliest and elaborate treatises on buddha-nature<ref>See, for example, ''Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 20:1–78, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_9E60DB.</ref> and numerous texts on Vajrayāna, covering ultimate bodhicitta.

An influential contemporary of Butön with a strong connection to the Sakya school was Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361). Initially associated with the Sakya school, Dölpopa undertook Kālacakra practice at Jomonang center, which eventually led him to his exposition of the philosophy of ''zhentong'' (''གཞན་སྟོང་''), or other emptiness. He wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rnam bshad mdo'i don bde blag tu rtogs pa'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon, 1990s?), 5:245–620, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_F64381.</ref> and original works such as ''The Mountain Dharma: Ocean of Definitive Meaning''<ref>See ''Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho zhes bya ba mthar thug thun mong ma yin pa'i man ngag'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 3:191–739, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_CC2A89.</ref> and ''The Fourth Council'',<ref>See ''Bka' bsdu bzhi pa'i don bstan rtsis chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 6:167–204, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_A37792.</ref> which elaborate an understanding of ultimate bodhicitta which is starkly different from the mainstream Sakya position. Dölpopa and his writings, which were carried on by the Jonang school, left behind a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist scholarship and practice.

In the fourteenth century, the Sakya school produced two outstanding scholars who both got trained at Sangpu Neutok. The first was Yaktön Sangye Pal (གཡག་སྟོན་སངས་རྒྱས་དཔལ་, 1350–1414), one of the six scholars known as the Six Ornaments of Tibet who wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Sher phyin mngon rtogs rgyan rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20485.</ref> but did not write any independent work on bodhicitta. The second scholar, Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (1367–1449), in contrast, wrote commentaries on major Indian treatises, including ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>Rongtön Sheja Kunrik, ''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rnam bshad tshig don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 3:3–774, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_96A5D5.</ref> and ''Introduction to the Middle Way''.<ref>''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don rnam nges'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 6:383–752, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_ACD85B.</ref> He also composed many short works on the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta, including a short text containing instructions on how to put ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into practice.<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug sgom rim rin chen rgyan phreng'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 1:508–10, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_876785.</ref>

Scholastic and polemical writings in the Sakya school reached unprecedented heights during the time of Rongtön's students, which included three of the most renowned scholars of their time—Taktsang Sherab Rinchen (སྟག་ཚང་ཤེས་རབ་རིན་ཆེན་, 1405–1477), Śākya Chokden (ཤཱཀྱ་མཆོག་ལྡན་, 1428–1507), and Gorampa Sönam Senge (གོ་རམས་པ་བསོད་ནམས་སེང་གེ་, 1429–1489). Taktsang Sherab Rinchen composed two works on the sciences and philosophical tenet systems and became a vocal critic of Tsongkhapa’s understanding of emptiness but did not write anything significant on bodhicitta. Śākya Chokden wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo dang mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel dang bcas pa'i lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don rgya mtsho'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 3:7–192, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_B4FF1A.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See ''Dbu ma 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don gnad kyi ṭī ka'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 5:291–486, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_D11306.</ref> and on Sakya Paṇḍita's ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'i le'u gsum pa rig 'dzin sdom pa'i skabs kyi 'bel gtam rnam par nges pa legs bshad gser gyi thur ma'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 7:7–244, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_E519EB.</ref> He also wrote a commentary on ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' by Langri Thangpa.<ref>Shākya Chokden, ''Blo sbyong tshig rkang brgyad pa'i rnam bshad don gsum rab tu gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 23:57–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_C4DA34.</ref> An independent thinker, Śākya Chokden introduced a new interpretation of buddha-nature, and his philosophical interpretation often differed from early Sakya masters. Because of this, his colleague Gorampa Sönam Senge, a sharp commentator and debater, became the main authority who established and carried on the Sakya philosophical tradition. Like his teacher Rongtön and his colleague Śākya Chokden, Gorampa wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i dka' ba'i gnas rnam par bshad pa yum don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 6:7–756, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_B6315B.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i dkyus kyi sa bcad pa dang gzhung so so'i dka' ba'i gnas la dpyad pa lta ba ngan sel'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 5:479–758, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_73D3D6.</ref> and also ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Sdom pa gsum gyi rab tu dbye ba'i rnam bshad rgyal ba'i gsung rab kyi dgongs pa gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 9:7–436, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_6EA702.</ref> Gorampa, Śākya Chokden, and Taktsang Sherab Rinchen would become known as Goshāktaksum, a trio of Sakya scholars who were among the harshest critics of Tsongkhapa and his Geluk school of thought.

Another prolific scholar around this time, though not directly related to Sakya, was Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal (བོ་དོང་པཎ་ཆེན་ཕྱོགས་ལས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་, 1376–1451). Chokle Namgyal left behind perhaps the largest collection of writings in Tibet, including commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Dpal de kho na nyid 'dus pa'i rgya mtsho chen po las phar phyin gyi dka' 'grel lung gi snye ma'', in Bo dong phyogs las rnam rgyal gyi gsung 'bum gsar rnyed skor, Par gzhi dang po (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 2:5–386, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD97485_3FDD00.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, Gsung 'bum phyogs las rnam rgyal (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1969–1981), vol. 17, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22103_5D3941.</ref> and an exegetical commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa rab tu gsal ba'', in 'Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung, ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po, Par gzhi dang po (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 73:221–560, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_6A3765.</ref> Scholarship on bodhicitta thrived with the rise of scholasticism from the fourteenth century. The theory of bodhicitta was discussed as the first of the seventy topics covered in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and the practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya tradition took place through the bodhisattva vow and through the instruction on ''Parting from the Four Attachments''. The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya school especially flourished and would culminate in the works of masters such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the Sakya figure who rose to be the leading advocate of the Rime ecumenical movement in the nineteenth century. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo bequeathed an enormous collection of writings that included many dozens of texts on bodhicitta. While he did not write commentaries on the main classical texts as other scholarly Sakya masters did, he composed many works concerning the practice of bodhicitta in the form of practical instructions, liturgies, and historical accounts.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings beyond Asia ==
Although some early cultural transmissions and interactions between Asia and the West occurred in ancient times, the proper transmission of Buddhism, particularly Mahāyāna teachings, to the West has taken place only since the early twentieth century. The general trend of globalization facilitated by the advancement in communication technology and the travel industry, political upheavals such as World War II and the Korean War, and the rise of communism in China, Vietnam, and Tibet all led to the migration of people from Mahāyāna countries in Asia to the West and to the spread of bodhicitta teachings. Western interest in Buddhist cultures was at first largely driven by cultural curiosity and academic interest, often motivated by a colonial agenda. However, this changed by the middle of the twentieth century with the significant growth of serious interest in Eastern spirituality, the introduction of Buddhist Studies in Western universities as part of religious and theological studies, and the rise of Dharma centers for practicing Buddhists.

The initial transmission of Mahāyāna teachings to the West began with the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning of the twentieth century. Figures such as Soyen Shaku (1860–1919) and Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966) brought Zen Buddhism and the Mahāyāna teachings from the Sino-Japanese tradition, while explorer-writers such as Evans Wentz (1878–1965) and Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969) introduced the West to Tibetan Buddhism. These were followed by a rising number of scholars in leading academic institutions, many of whom undertook sustained and in-depth study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the same time, numerous Asian Buddhist teachers from Tibet and East Asia started to establish Dharma centers, particularly in Europe and North America, where people with an interest in Buddhism took up their spiritual practice. Such a diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in general and teachings on bodhicitta in particular was further enhanced by the rising popularity of figures such as the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987).

One way to gauge the spread of the teachings on bodhicitta is to look at the transmission of the main classics on bodhicitta—namely, Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Compendium of Training''. Early translations of these two works, which gained much popularity in India soon after their composition in the eighth century, appeared in Tibetan and Chinese in the ninth and tenth centuries respectively. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' was initially translated into Tibetan by Kawa Paltsek in the eighth century and into Chinese by Tiān Xīzāi (d.1000) in 985 CE. The Tibetan translation went through subsequent revisions at least twice in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by Lotsāwa Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055) and Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) respectively. The text was then translated into Mongolian by Čosgi Odser (ཆོས་ཀྱི་འོད་ཟེར་, fl. 1305–1321) in 1305. ''The Compendium of Training'' was translated into Tibetan by Yeshe De (eighth century) and later revised by Ngok Loden Sherab. It was translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa in the first half of the eleventh century.

In the centuries after their composition, both of these texts appear to have spread quickly beyond North India to places such as Kashmir and Kathmandu. For example, the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project has found forty-one manuscripts related to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', including twelve palm-leaf manuscripts, and the earliest one (located in Kathmandu) dated to 1180 CE. The only existing Sanskrit manuscript of ''The Compendium of Training'', now housed in Cambridge University Library, was also acquired from Kathmandu.

Although these texts attracted much attention in India, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and other traditional Buddhist areas, their transmission to the West occurred only around the beginning of the twentieth century. The first publication of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the Western world took place in Russia in 1889 when Ivan P. Minayev reviewed and published the Sanskrit text using the manuscript brought by Brian Houghton Hodgson from Kathmandu.<ref>I. P. Minayev, "La doctrine du salut dans le Bouddhisme posterieur," ''Zapiski'', no. 4 (1889).</ref> Similarly, ''The Compendium of Training'' was first published through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902 by Cecil Bendall, who used the Sanskrit manuscript obtained by Daniel Wright in 1875 from Kathmandu.<ref>Cecil Bendall, ed., ''Çikshāsamuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhistic Teaching Compiled by Çāntideva Chiefly from Earlier Mahāyāna-Sūtras'' (St Pétersburg: Commissionaires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1902), xxiv.</ref> The first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into a European language was undertaken by Louis de la Vallée Poussin, who translated the text in stages from 1892 onward and completed it in 1907. This was followed by five different translations into French in the twentieth century. Lionel David Barnett produced the first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into English in 1909, although he only did an abridged version. The first complete English translation of the verses appears to have been carried out by Marion Matics.<ref>Marion Leonidas Matics, ''Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The Bodhicaryāvatāra of the Buddhist Poet Śāntideva'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970).</ref> Since then, there have been some seventeen different English translations of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', and writings on this text continue to grow. It is today found in over a dozen European languages. It was also translated into Japanese by Ekai Kawaguchi (1866–1945) and published in 1921, and translations can be found in many other Asian languages.

Śāntideva’s other main work, ''The Compendium of Training'', was edited and published for the first time in the West by Cecil Bendell in 1902. He also started the translation, but it was finished by W. H. D. Rouse and published in 1922. As regards the translation of ''The Compendium of Training'' into other languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930. Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered it into modern Japanese from the Chinese version. The latest and most popular translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' today is the one by the Padmakara Translation Group and that of ''The Compendium of Training'' is the one by Charles Goodman.

Through these academic and religious translations and numerous other writings on bodhicitta, the teachings and practice of bodhicitta have today spread widely in many continents. Yet, the biggest impetus for the promotion of bodhicitta across the world has come from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), an ardent promoter of bodhicitta doctrine and practice. Throughout the decades following the exodus of Tibetans into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lama has tirelessly taught and written about bodhicitta and spread the teachings to large global audiences. Interest in Tibetan Buddhism in general and the bodhicitta teachings has grown rapidly as these teachings, which were previously inaccessible to foreigners, have become easily available.

Moreover, the teachings on bodhicitta and the bodhisattva ideal continue to appeal to modern progressive sensibilities, leading to their adoption and application even beyond religious circles. With influential leaders such as the Dalai Lama promoting these ideas, the rich tradition of bodhicitta—the way of wisdom and compassion—continues to spread in different parts of the world in the twenty-first century in a sustained effort to curb materialism, individualism, egocentricity, aggression, and environmental degradation, which are rampant in the world. This web resource contains extensive materials on bodhicitta in one place, launching a new chapter in the history of bodhicitta teachings. It provides timely support to help students and practitioners easily enhance their knowledge, deepen their understanding, and strengthen their practice.
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Articles/History of Bodhicitta Teachings

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== The Origins of Bodhicitta ==
Tradition would have it that bodhicitta existed since time immemorial, as all buddhas must start their journey by becoming a bodhisattva and one can only do so by cultivating bodhicitta—the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. However, from a historical perspective, the term ''bodhicitta'' and the idea of taking all sentient beings to the state of full enlightenment only emerges with the rise of the Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE. There is no explicit mention of the term ''bodhicitta'' in the Buddhist canon preserved in the Pāli language, which most scholars consider to be the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures.

One can find in the Pāli canon, particularly in the section on past buddhas and the Jātaka tales, references to the historical Buddha generating the first thoughts to become a buddha in his former lifetimes. A good example is the ascetic Sumedha, one of the previous rebirths of the historical Buddha, taking the vow to seek perfect enlightenment for the first time in the presence of Buddha Dīpaṃkara, who confirms his success in the future through a prediction.<ref>See "Sumedha's Wish" and "The History of Buddha Dīpaṅkara" in ''Chronicles of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhavaṃsa'') under Minor Collections (''Khuddakanikāya''), at suttacentral.net, https://suttacentral.net/bv?view=normal&lang=en. Retrieved on May 5, 2025.</ref> Similarly, we also find the story of the Buddha as the brahmin Jotipāla, who takes the vow once again in the presence of Buddha Kāśyapa and receives a prediction from him that he will one day become a buddha. These stories, along with many others about the Buddha as a bodhisattva and his aim to attain perfect enlightenment, are considered by later Buddhist thinkers to exemplify bodhicitta. No doubt, these accounts in the early canonical works contributed to the development of the concept and practice of bodhicitta in later times.

It is notable, however, that the early Buddhist scriptures portray the commitment to seek the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as a privilege reserved for only a select few individuals of high capacity. They do not explicitly mention the wish to pursue enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, nor do they articulate the noble aim of leading all sentient beings to the state of perfect enlightenment. Rather, in these early teachings, the focus is on the pursuit of individual liberation. Although some exceptional beings become fully enlightened buddhas with great compassion for the world, the teachings do not highlight the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta. The compassionate intention to benefit the world becomes more explicit in later times.

The ''Mahāvastu'' (the "Great Event" or "Great Story"), a book from around the second century BCE belonging to the Lokottaravādin school, is perhaps one of the earliest texts to explicitly mention the term ''bodhicitta'' and to present both aspects of bodhicitta: the aim for perfect enlightenment and wish to do so out of compassion for sentient beings.<ref>Jeom-suk Park claims that this appearance of bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' is indeed the first appearance of the term. See Jeom-suk Park, "Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism," ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 51, no. 2 (March 2003): 139.</ref> The verses that mention bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' (MVU) read as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na dhyānahānir bhavate kadācit /
na bodhicittaṃ jahate kadācit // (MVU 2.382)<ref>See Emmanuel Fauré, ed., ''Mahāvastu-avādana'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 2.382, 2.392, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. The #2 here stands for part 2 of the ''Mahāvastu'' as it has been arranged on GRETIL.</ref>

Never is there any falling off in meditation, and never
does he abandon the thought of enlightenment.<ref>See J. J. Jones, trans., ''The Mahāvastu'' (London: Luzac, 1952), 2:344.</ref>
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na bodhicittaṃ vijahati so kadācit /
na khaṇḍaśīlo bhavati asaṃvṛto vā // (MVU 2.392)

Never does he give up the thought of enlightenment.
He never becomes corrupt of morals nor dissolute.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 2:351, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>
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The accounts of the previous lives of the historical Buddha and of Buddha Maitreya (the future Buddha) in the ''Mahāvastu'' chronicle how, for example, during the time of Buddha Suprabhāsa, the historical Buddha as the monk Abhiya and Maitreya as King Vairocana made the aspiration to reach the state of perfect enlightenment and did so out of compassion to benefit the world. Such an aspiration to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of the world gradually evolved into the concept of bodhicitta with the emergence of Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE.
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|quote-text=yasmiṃ samaye satvā bhavensuḥ alenā atrāṇā aśaraṇā aparāyaṇā utsadalolā utsadadoṣā utsadamohā akuśalān dharmā samādāya vartensuḥ yobhūyena ca apāyapratipūrakā bhavensu tasmiṃ kāle tasmiṃ samaye aham anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyehaṃ // taṃ bhaveyaṃ bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukaṃpāya mahato janakāyasyārthāya hitāya sukhāya devānāṃ ca manuṣyāṇāṃ ca // (MVU 1.61)<ref>Fauré, ''Mahāvastu'', 1.161, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>

When beings come to be without refuge, support, protection, shelter, and succour, when they become characterized by fickleness, malice, and folly, when they live in accordance with wrong standards of conduct and generally go to crowd the worlds of woe, then may I awake to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. May I do so for the benefit and welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world, for the sake of the multitude, for the good of devas and men.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 1:50.</ref>
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The earliest Mahāyāna texts to discuss bodhicitta are said to be ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'' (''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'')<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_aSTAdazasAhasrikA-prajJApAramitA55-82.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>’</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fols. 1b1–286a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0012.</ref> and ''The Verses that Summarize the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'').<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8. See Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, ''Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 1.5, 5.5-8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ratnaguNasaMcayagAthA.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See also, ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fols. 1b1-19b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0013.</ref> These texts date to around 100 BCE and both contain the term ''bodhicitta'' and promote the concept of seeking enlightenment out of compassion and love for sentient beings.<ref>See ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'', 16.5 (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fol. 10a and ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 16b.</ref> The term ''bodhicitta'' appears at the beginning of ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', when Subhūti, through the blessings of the Buddha, submits to the Buddha that a bodhisattva "should train to not have pride in having bodhicitta, for such mind is not mind, but mind is by nature luminous."<ref>འདི་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་དེས་ཀྱང་རློམ་སེམས་སུ་མི་བགྱིད་པ་དེ་ལྟར་བསླབ་པར་བགྱིའོ། །དེ་ཅིའི་སླད་དུ་ཞེ་ན། འདི་ལྟར་སེམས་དེ་ནི་སེམས་མ་མཆིས་པ་སྟེ། སེམས་རང་བཞིན་ནི་འོད་གསལ་བ་ལགས་སོ།། ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 3a.</ref>

[[File:Text sample 1 for history of bodhicitta.jpg|900px|class=w-100 h-auto my-4 border rounded|]]

Similarly, in another passage from this same text, which Gareth Sparham calls the "Origin-Passage,"<ref>Gareth Sparham, "Indian Altruism: A Study of the Terms ''bodhicitta'' and ''cittotpāda''," ''Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15, no. 2 (1992): 224–42.</ref> Subhūti advises Śāriputra that a bodhisattva should not think of an action as hardship because one cannot serve the multitude of sentient beings with such a thought.<ref>See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'', fol. 16b. See Edward Conze, T''he Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary'' (Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation, 1975), 93.</ref> Only with the feeling of joy and love toward sentient beings, as though they were one’s father, mother, brother, or sister, will one be able to work for countless sentient beings and cultivate the intention to take all of these beings out of suffering for all times, just as one wishes to take oneself out of suffering for all times.

What, then, could have led to the development of such a noble and high ideal as bodhicitta? Dorji Wangchuk, in his authoritative work on bodhicitta entitled ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study on the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'', speculates that the rise of the bodhicitta concept may have been "driven by a psychological need of the Buddhists to compensate for the loss of the historical Buddha."<ref>See Dorji Wangchuk, ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 89.</ref> After the Buddha’s passing, some of his followers may have sought a substitute for the historical Buddha beyond the corpus of teachings and the Saṅgha community, who, as custodians of the Vinaya discipline that the Buddha designated as his representative, were entrusted with preserving his legacy after his departure. This may have been more common among those who chose to follow a hermetic and reclusive life outside the monastic institutions or sought a different understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and an alternative spiritual approach to what the mainstream monastic establishment offered. The Mahāyāna system is said to have emerged as a result of such a tendency,<ref>See Paul Williams, ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'' (London: Routledge, 2009).</ref> and it is likely that the need for a present buddha figure was strong among such people. In order to have a buddha, one must have a bodhisattva who aspires to become a buddha, and for that one needs to have the resolve or motivation to become a buddha. Thus, the concept of bodhicitta.

Gombrich and Wangchuk also argue that the Buddhist scriptures present the ultimate truth as being eternal and unchanging.<ref>Wangchuk, ''Resolve'', 78. Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'' (London: Routledge, 2006), 121.</ref> Because this truth remains immanent and eternal, individuals who achieve such realization emerge periodically throughout history. This understanding opens the possibility for other persons to attain the same enlightenment that the historical Buddha achieved. Thus, we see the emergence of a plurality of buddhas in early Buddhist teachings, which present six and twenty-four past buddhas as well as future buddhas such as Maitreya. With the rise of Mahāyāna, the pantheon of buddhas increases, and not only are there numerous past and future buddhas, one sees the idea of numerous present buddhas dwelling in different buddha realms situated in the vast expanse of the new Mahāyāna cosmology. With numerous buddhas as examples, cultivating bodhicitta to achieve buddhahood becomes a central theme.

Bodhicitta, as some scholars have argued, was also an expansion and improvement on the concept of ''prathamacitta'', or the initial resolve made by the Buddha to seek perfect enlightenment. This resolve is also presented as ''praṇidhāna'' (Pāli: ''paṇidhāna''), or the earnest aspiration to attain enlightenment. It is also thought to be an enhanced elucidation of ''adhyāśaya'' (Pāli: ''ajjhāsaya''), or the noble intention to earnestly seek enlightenment or benefit others. Some scholars considered ''adhyāśaya'' to be an abbreviation of ''anuttarāyāṃ samyaksambodhau cittam utpādayati'', or the generation of the thought of the unsurpassed perfect buddhahood. Many early Mahāyāna sources also contain the term ''cittotpāda''—the cultivation of the mind—which refers to the generation of the intention to seek perfect enlightenment. In later works, the terms ''bodhicitta'', ''cittotpāda'', and ''bodhicittotpāda'' came to be used synonymously, although they may have had different referents and connotations in the early period of Mahāyāna.

Whatever the main basis of the technical term ''bodhicitta'', the topic of bodhicitta was repeated and further elaborated in other sūtras belonging to the perfection of wisdom class and numerous other Mahāyāna sūtras that emerged in the subsequent centuries. The main sūtras containing the full-blown teachings on bodhicitta include ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra'') in the ''Avataṃsaka'' collection, ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''), ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' (''Sāgaramatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), ''The Questions of Ugraḥ Sūtra'' (''Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra''), ''The Questions of Vīradatta'' (''Vīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'' (''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''), and ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'' (''Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra''), to mention a few. In these sūtras, we see the development of the concept of bodhicitta along with the notions of compassion and wisdom. In many sources, such as ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' and ''The Basket of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisatvapiṭaka''), bodhicitta also refers to the ultimate nature of things or the luminous nature of the mind, which Wangchuk categorizes as ontological bodhicitta.

Besides the numerous canonical Mahāyāna sūtras that discuss and promote bodhicitta, we also see the rise of commentarial literature which deals with the theory and practice of bodhicitta. The foremost champion of the Mahāyāna teachings that included the concept of bodhicitta was Nāgārjuna, who lived roughly between 150 to 250 CE. In his ''Praise of the Diamond Mind'' (''Cittavajrastava'') and ''Praise of Dharmadhātu'' (''Dharmadhātustava''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Cittavajrastava'' (''Sems kyi rdo rje bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1121, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 69b4–70a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1121, and ''Dharmadhātustava'' (''Chos kyi dbyings su bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1118, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 1.63b5–67b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1118.</ref> Nāgārjuna uses the term ''bodhicitta'' to refer to the nature of mind and ultimate reality. However, in ''The Commentary on Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna, he presents bodhicitta as "the thought motivated by great compassion."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེས་བརླན་པའི་སེམས་ཀྱིས་ནི། །འབད་པས་བསྒོམ་པར་བྱ་བ་ཡིན། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittavivaraṇa'' (''Byang chub sems kyi 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1800, rgyud, vol. 35, ngi, fol. 38b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1800.</ref> This, in later times, came to be called ''relative bodhicitta''. In his ''Compendium of Sūtras'' (''Sūtrasamuccaya''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' (''Mdo kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3934, dbu ma, vol. 110, ki, fols. 141b1–215a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3934.</ref> Nāgārjuna presents numerous citations from sūtras to illustrate the rarity and importance of many aspects of Mahāyāna practice, including the supreme thought of awakening, or bodhicitta. Another text on how to take the vow of bodhicitta entitled ''The Ritual for Generating Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādavidhi''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi'' (''Byang chub tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga''), in Derge Tengyur D3966, dbu ma, vol. 112, gi, fols. 237a4–239a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3966.</ref> which contains some detail on the bodhisattva aspirations, is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The Chinese tradition also ascribes to Nāgārjuna a text called ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'' (''Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun''),<ref>For an English translation of this text, see Minoru Kiyota, trans., "The Bodhicitta Śāstra," in ''Esoteric Texts'' (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2015), 103–29.</ref> a tantric text which contains the concept of bodhicitta both as the altruistic mind to take all beings to perfect enlightenment and as the ultimate nature of the mind, or buddha-nature. There is no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of this text.

However, the text attributed to Nāgārjuna which explicitly discusses bodhicitta is his discourse to his royal disciple, claimed to be a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty who ruled in the Deccan plateau in the second century. In fact, Nāgārjuna wrote two homilies, but his ''Epistle to a Friend'' (''suhṛllekhaḥ''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''suhṛllekhaḥ'' (''bshes pa'i spring yig''), in Derge Tengyur D4182,spring yig, vol. 173, nge, fols. 40b4–46b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4182.</ref> does not discuss bodhicitta as does his other work, ''The Precious Garland'' (''Ratnavāli'').<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref> This work discusses bodhicitta, the bodhisattva practices, the stages on the bodhisattva path, and the bodhisattva goal.

In addition to these texts, the Tibetan Tengyur also contains several aspirational prayers for bodhisattva practice that are attributed to Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna’s teachings on bodhicitta, which tradition claims he received from Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom, was passed down mainly through the adherents of the Middle Way school that he initiated. This tradition came to be known as the Profound View tradition and was espoused and propagated by many Buddhist masters from famous universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.

Another famous lineage of bodhicitta teachings known as the Vast Conduct tradition was passed down from Asaṅga (fourth century), who is said to have received the teachings from Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to this tradition, Asaṅga propitiated Maitreya for twelve long years without receiving a vision of Maitreya, even in a dream. Disappointed, Asaṅga gives up the practice of propitiation and leaves his hermitage when he encounters a wretched bitch in agony as her rotting hind is being consumed by maggots. Out of intense compassion, Asaṅga feeds a bit of his own flesh to the dog and uses his tongue to take out the maggots. Disgusted, he does so with closed eyes, but his tongue touches the ground instead of the dog, and Lo, as he opens his eyes, he sees before him Maitreya with his sublime aura. "You have no compassion," Asaṅga complains to Maitreya for not even showing up in his dream, although he worshiped Maitreya for a dozen years. Maitreya tells Asaṅga that he has been near Asaṅga all along but Asaṅga could not see him. Having removed some karmic obscurations after a long retreat, Asaṅga could see Maitreya as a wretched dog. Then, as compassion for the dog stirred within him, Asaṅga removed the obscurations in his mind, making him able to see the divine figure of Maitreya. Maitreya asked Asaṅga to carry him on his shoulder and ask people what they could see. Most people in the town saw nothing, but an old woman saw him carrying a miserable bitch. Subsequently, Maitreya is said to have taken Asaṅga miraculously to Tuṣita Heaven and to have given him the teachings on Maitreya's five works. The three longer treatises of these five works—namely, ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' (''Abhisamayālaṃkāra''), ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), and ''The Ultimate Continuum of Mahāyāna'' (''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'')—varyingly discuss the concept of bodhicitta as an altruistic thought of enlightenment or the nature of one's mind.

In ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', bodhicitta is discussed as the first of the seventy topics related to the Buddhist ground, path, and fruition. We find in this book a very clear definition of bodhicitta, although it uses the term ''cittotpāda''.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=''Cittotpāda'' is the wish to attain the perfect full enlightenment for the sake of others.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་གཞན་དོན་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་རྫོགས་པའི་བྱང་ཆུབ་འདོད། ། Maitreya, ''Abhisamayālaṃkāra'' (''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3786, vol. 80, sher phyin, ka, fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3786.</ref>
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This verse remains the most concise and popular definition of bodhicitta. The text also breaks down bodhicitta into twenty-two types using similes and aligns them to the progression of the bodhisattva path. This same concept is further elaborated in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), in which a whole chapter is dedicated to discussing bodhicitta.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshigs le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, vol. 123, sems tsam, phi, fols. 1a1–39a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref> These two texts by Maitreya and the commentaries on them contain the most detailed theoretical discussions on bodhicitta. In ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', we find not only discussions on relative bodhicitta (i.e., the altruistic thought of enlightenment) but also on ultimate bodhicitta, which is the pristine wisdom discerning the ultimate nature of things.

Asaṅga elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta through his own ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi''), which is a part of his larger work entitled ''The Stages of Yoga Practice'' (''Yogācārabhūmi''). In this work, he points out that bodhicitta has two specific objects.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Therefore, the cultivation of the mind [of enlightenment] aims at enlightenment and also at the welfare of sentient beings.<ref>Asaṅga, ''Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ'' (''Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa las byang chub sems dpa'i sa''), in Derge Tengyur D4037, vol. 129, sems tsam, wi, fol. 7b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4037.</ref>
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It is clear from this statement that Asaṅga is commenting on the definition of bodhicitta provided by Maitreya in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and also in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''. Both Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' and Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' also present the causes and conditions for cultivating bodhicitta. The latter became the main source for the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow in the Vast Conduct tradition. Passed down through Asaṅga, this line of transmission for taking the bodhisattva vow became frequently, though not exclusively, associated with the Mind Only/Yoga Practice school of Mahāyāna. The tradition later became known as the Vast Conduct tradition and was propagated by some of the eminent teachers of bodhicitta.

Besides Nāgārjuna and Asaṅga, the Tibetan tradition also includes Aśvaghoṣa among the early proponents of bodhicitta. Aśvaghoṣa, who is generally believed to have lived sometime within the first two centuries of the common era, was an acclaimed Buddhist poet, dramatist, and the author of poetic works such as ''The Acts of the Buddha'' (''Buddhacarita''), ''Beautiful Nanda'' (''Saundarananda''), and ''The Story of Śāriputra'' (''Śāriputraprakaraṇa''). The Chinese tradition ascribes ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'' (''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra'', ''Dasheng qixin lun'') to Aśvaghoṣa, although modern scholars contest this attribution. The Tibetan Tengyur canon contains two works on relative and ultimate bodhicitta that are considered to be by Aśvaghoṣa,<ref>Aśvaghoṣa, ''Saṃvṛtibodhicittabhāvanopadeśavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge pad+ma spungs pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3911, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 13b4–15a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3911, and ''Paramārthabodhicittabhāvanākramavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Don dam pa byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge rin po che'i sgron ma zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3912, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 15a6–16b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3912.</ref> but there is no known record of the transmission of teachings on bodhicitta from Aśvaghoṣa.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings in India and Beyond ==
It is not clear when the names given to the two traditions of Mahāyāna teachings—the Vast Conduct tradition and the Profound View tradition—were introduced, and the names appear to have undergone different phases. However, written records clearly point to the actual teachings on bodhicitta being passed down through generations of Nāgārjuna's and Asaṅga's followers. For the Profound View school, after Nāgārjuna, his disciple Āryadeva promoted bodhicitta in his writings, particularly in ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yogic Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'').<ref>Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'' (''Bstan bcos bzhi brgya pa zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3846, vol. 97, dbu ma, tsha, fols. 1a1–18a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> "The cultivation of the initial thought of enlightenment," he claimed, "outshines even the merit which can make all beings on earth universal monarchs."<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་སེམས་དང་པོ། །ས་སྟེངས་སྐྱེ་བོ་ཐམས་ཅད་ནི། །འཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བ་ཉིད་འགྱུར་བ། །དེ་དག་བསོད་ནམས་ལས་ཁྱད་འཕགས། ། Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'', fol. 6a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> Similarly, Bhāvaviveka (ca. 500–570 CE) composed his ''Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā''), devoting the opening chapter to the topic of bodhicitta. In it he writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Bodhicitta is the seed of buddhas
Adorned with loving-kindness,
Compassion and knowledge.
The wise shall not abandon it.<ref>བྱམས་པ་དང་ནི་སྙིང་རྗེ་དང་། །ཤེས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྒྱན་པ་ཡི། །སངས་རྒྱས་ས་བོན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Bhāvaviveka, ''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā'' (''Dbu ma'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3855, vol. 98, dbu ma, dza, fols. 2a–2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3855.</ref>
}}
Candrakīrti, the author of ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''),<ref>Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, vol. 102, dbu ma, 'a, fols. 201b1–219a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta in the context of the Mahāyāna path, particularly as understood in the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna. Although Candrakīrti had issues with Bhāvaviveka on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s logical procedures to establish the ultimate truth, they shared the same zest for underscoring the importance of bodhicitta on the bodhisattva path to perfect enlightenment. Candrakīrti organized his famous work using the ten stages of the bodhisattva path and the different levels of bodhicitta. Right at the outset of the work, he declares that bodhicitta, compassion, and the understanding of nonduality are the causes of bodhisattvas.

The most influential champion of bodhicitta teachings in India, however, was undoubtedly Śāntideva, the author of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'')<ref>Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fols. 1a1–40a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> and ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'').<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 3a2–194b52, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. See also the verse summary: ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 1a1–3a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref> Śāntideva probably lived around the beginning of the eighth century CE and was likely born in North India, although we have no evidence or records from his time. Most of what we know about him comes from accounts of his life written long after his time by faithful followers. Like the Buddha, he is said to have been born as a prince in North India but to have renounced his kingdom to pursue a spiritual career through the guidance of his tutelary deity Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom. Śāntideva is said to have reached a high level of erudition and spiritual enlightenment through Mañjuśrī’s blessings, although, outwardly, he appeared as a lazy monk, indulging in eating, sleeping, and relieving himself, thus earning him the nickname Busuku.

As the story goes, it was to mock his indolence and to shame him that his peers persuaded Śāntideva to give a public sermon. Śāntideva agreed and is said to have miraculously climbed on the unreasonably high throne they purposely set up to mock him. Śāntideva then asked the congregation whether they wanted an exposition of a text that already existed or something new. They asked for a new teaching, resulting in Śāntideva's delivery of the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'', or ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva is said to have levitated into the sky as he recited the verse "When existence and nonexistence do not remain before the mind, as there is no other aspect, the mind comes to rest without any grasping."<ref>གང་ཚེ་དངོས་དང་དངོས་མེད་དག ། བློ་ཡི་མདུན་ན་མི་གནས་པ། །དེ་ཚེ་རྣམ་པ་གཞན་མེད་པས། །དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི། ། Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 32a.4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> He rose higher and higher until he disappeared, his voice still being heard. The disappearance into sky could be understood as an allegory for the highest experience of transcendence and emptiness of all conceptual thoughts in Śāntideva’s philosophical system. However, an old manuscript recently discovered in Drepung Monastery states that Śāntideva’s reputation soared after his recitation, resulting in much veneration and offering. And Śāntideva is said to have left Nālandā to avoid the distraction entailed by such attention.<ref>Anonymous, ''Spyod 'jug gi bsdus don dang slob dpon zhi ba lha'i lo rgyus'', in Bka' gdams gsung 'bum phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, Par gzhi dang po (Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), 6:9–14, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD153536_DD71AE.</ref> Thus, Śāntideva's miraculous disappearance into the sky likely represents a later mythological embellishment of the actual circumstances surrounding his departure.

Whatever the case may be of its origins, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' has arguably become the most influential Buddhist work in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition on bodhicitta. In this work, Śāntideva lays out the practice of bodhicitta in ten chapters, making bold claims such as:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Those who wish to crush the many sorrows of existence,
Who wish to quell the pain of living beings,
Who wish to have experience of a myriad joys
Should never turn away from bodhichitta. (1.8)<ref>སྲིད་པའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་གཞོམ་འདོད་ཅིང་། །སེམས་ཅན་མི་བདེ་བསལ་བར་འདོད་པ་དང་། །བདེ་མང་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་སྤྱོད་པར་འདོད་པས་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྟག་ཏུ་གཏང་མི་བྱ། ། This translation belongs to the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 32. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 2a.4–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Since its propagation in the eighth century, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', combining highly inspirational exhortations and incisive philosophical arguments in an evocative poetic language, appears to have become the ''locus classicus'' for bodhicitta study and practice, used and cited by many writers after its appearance. It was Śāntideva who also explicitly presented the meditation on equality between self and others and exchange between self and others as a way to cultivate bodhicitta, as illustrated by the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Do not be downcast, but marshal all your powers;
Make an effort; be the master of yourself!
Practice the equality of self and other;
Practice the exchange of self and other. (7.16)<ref>སྒྱིད་ལུག་མེད་པར་དཔུང་ཚོགས་དང་། །ལྷུར་བླང་བདག་ཉིད་དབང་བྱ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་མཉམ་པ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་བརྗེ་བར་བགྱི། ། This translation is by the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 99. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 20b.5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Traditional Tibetan scholars claimed that over a hundred Indian commentaries were written on Śāntideva’s famous work, but there are only twelve Indian commentaries on it available today. They include works by Prajñākaramati, Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Kalyāṇadeva, Vairocanarakṣita, Vinītadeva, Vibhūticandra, Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, and Atiśa.

While ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' is an original work by Śantideva written in poetic verse, his other major work, ''The Compendium of Training'', is an anthology of citations of passages from sūtras interspersed with his own words. The two works most likely developed simultaneously in an iterative process, the latter being a compilation of sources for the former in verse. ''The Compendium of Training'' was condensed into a shorter verse summary, the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'', the gist of which is presented by the following verses.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions.
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them.<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྡོམ་པ་ནི། །རྒྱས་པར་ཐེག་པ་ཆེ་ལས་འབྱུང་། །གང་གིས་ལྟུང་བར་མི་འགྱུར་བའི། །གནད་ཀྱི་གནས་རྣམས་འདིར་རིག་བྱ། །བདག་གི་ལུས་དང་ལོངས་སྤྱོད་དང་། །དགེ་བ་དུས་གསུམ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས། །སེམས་ཅན་ཀུན་ལ་བཏང་བ་དང་། །དེ་བསྲུང་དག་པ་སྤེལ་བའོ། These are verses 3 and 4 of the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā''. For the Tibetan text, see ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 1b.3–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
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Despite being an important source for bodhisattva practice, there are only two commentarial works on ''The Compendium of Training''. One is an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and the other is a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa.

The study and practice of bodhicitta within the Profound View tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism reached unprecedented heights following the eighth century, largely through the contributions of Śāntideva. In addition to the masters who commented on Śāntideva’s works mentioned above, there were other masters such as Mañjuśrīmitra, Jñānagarbha, Jetāri, Puṇyaśrī, Dhanaśrī, Vimalamitra, Śāntarakṣita, and Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla, who took up the scholarship and practice on bodhicitta. Among them, Mañjuśrīmitra and Jñānagarbha focused on the exposition of ultimate bodhicitta, which discerns the ultimate reality of emptiness, while Jetāri wrote a manual for taking the bodhisattva vow and a practice manual for beginners. In his treatise entitled ''Presenting Twelve Points on the Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa''), Mañjuśrīmitra argues that bodhicitta is the mother of all buddhas, the basis of all disciplines, the foundation of all merit, the source of all enlightened qualities, the basis of liberation, and the supreme path leading to enlightenment.<ref>See ''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2578, vol. 65, rgyud, ngu, fols. 44b4–59a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2578.</ref> However, the most prolific Indian author on bodhicitta belonging to the Middle Way school in the first millennium after Śāntideva was Kamalaśīla. He wrote his trilogy on ''The Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama'') in which he presented the gradual process of the bodhisattva path. He and his teacher Śāntarakṣita, both of whom visited Tibet in the second half of the eighth century, and Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, who traveled to Tibet in the middle of the eleventh century, were the leading doyens who transmitted the teachings on bodhicitta to Tibet.

As for the Vast Conduct tradition, which is supposed to have come down from Maitreya and the pioneer advocate Asaṅga, it continued through Vasubandhu, the younger brother of Asaṅga, who initially followed a non-Mahāyāna school and was critical of Asaṅga's teachings, but later embraced the Mahāyāna school of Mind Only. Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Asaṅga's ''The Compendium of Mahāyāna'' (''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''), and ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Aspiration to Good Actions'' (''Āryabhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja''). Additionally, a work entitled ''Treatise on the Generation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādaśāstra'') is attributed to him. Other commentators and masters who continued the teachings on bodhicitta in this line include Vasubandhu's students Sthiramati, Dignāga, and Guṇaprabha, who wrote various commentaries. They were followed by Jinaputra, Jñānaśrī, Niḥsvabhāvatā, Parahitabhadra, and Sāgaramegha, whose works are included in the Tibetan Tengyur canon. A prominent master of this line was the householder Candragomin,<ref>While there is no complete scholarly consensus, the majority of modern scholarship seems to place Candragomin in either the fifth–sixth centuries CE (the earlier estimate) or more commonly in the seventh century CE (approximately 600–650 CE, with the latter being the more widely accepted timeframe among contemporary scholars.</ref> who authored a treatise called ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'')<ref>See ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4081, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 166b1–167a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4081.</ref> and is said to have challenged Candrakīrti in debate. Śāntarakṣita and Bodhibhadra wrote commentaries on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses''.<ref>See ''Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti'' (''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4082, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 167a6–184b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4082, and ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśakapañjikā'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa'i dka' 'grel''), in Derge Tengyur D4083, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 184b3–217b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4083.</ref> The teachings and instructions in this tradition were passed down to Atiśa mainly by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa in the tenth century.

While the teachings on bodhicitta spread through these two Mahāyāna lineages, Mahāyāna Buddhism also saw the rise of yet another mode of practice and transmission. This was the emergence of what came to be called Vajrayāna or tantric Buddhism, as the system was mainly based on a body of literature called tantras. Purported to be the words of the Buddha just like the Mahāyāna sūtras, these tantras presented a path to enlightenment that included a wide range of mental, verbal, and embodied tools, as well as radical techniques. Focused on the unraveling of the innate mind of enlightenment, it adopted a syncretic approach, using a great number of non-Buddhist rituals and elements infused with Buddhist philosophies and values to bring about an expedient internal transformation. The tantric masters and texts underscored the importance of bodhicitta as an indispensable component of the Vajrayāna path. They promoted the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta as an intention to seek buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings but championed the understanding of bodhicitta as the realization of the innate nature of the mind and existence. We find also in the Vajrayāna teachings the presentation of symbolic and embodied forms of bodhicitta, which Dorji Wangchuk categorizes as psycho-physiological and semeiological bodhicitta. These esoteric Vajrayāna teachings on bodhicitta flourished in India toward the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, when it also started to spread to Tibet.

A couple centuries after their emergence in India, the teachings on bodhicitta began to spread beyond India. The teachings first traveled to Central Asia and from there to China. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', for instance, was translated by Lokakṣema in 179 BCE. This was followed by the translation of many other sūtras and commentaries by translators such as Paramārtha, Dharmarakṣa, Kumārajīva, Buddhabhadra, and Dharmakṣema in the subsequent centuries. These included the main sūtras containing teachings on bodhicitta such as ''The Flower Ornament Sūtra'' (''Avataṃsakasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'', ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'', ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'', ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'', ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'', and the other versions of the perfection of wisdom sūtras. From the accounts of Āryadeva and Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, we can also surmise that the teachings on bodhicitta spread to Ceylon and southeastern parts of Asia.

== The Transmission of Bodhicitta Teachings to Tibet ==
Tibetan historians claim that some Buddhist sūtras, such as ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' (དཔང་སྐོང་ཕྱག་བརྒྱ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ།)<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 1b1–5b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267. No Sanskrit or Chinese versions of this sūtra are known to exist.</ref> and ''The Basket's Display'' (''Karaṇḍavyūhasūtra''),<ref>''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa za ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur, D116, vol. 51, mdo sde, pa, fols. 200a3–247b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0116.</ref> reached Tibet during the reign of the eighth Yarlung king, Lha Thothori, sometime in the fifth century. Although no one in Tibet understood the texts at that time, they contained teachings on altruism and the bodhisattva path. While ''The Basket's Display'' mainly focuses on the virtues of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion, and his mantra, ''oṃ maṇi padme huṃ'', ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' contains homages to buddhas, the twelve sets of the Buddha's teachings, and bodhisattvas. It also explicitly mentions bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I, by the name . . . from now on until I reach the heart of enlightenment, shall cultivate the thought of enlightenment. I shall never let go of the thought of enlightenment. May I never be separated from the sublime virtuous friend.<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 5a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267.</ref>
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The Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on bodhicitta in particular may have spread to Tibet in some form in the seventh century during the reign of the thirty-second Yarlung monarch Songtsen Gampo. During this time Songtsen Gampo took two Buddhist brides—one from Tang China and another from the Kathmandu Valley—and also sent his minister Thönmi Sambhoṭa to India to learn Sanskrit. While we see the general introduction of the Buddhist system at this time, there are no specific records of texts related to bodhicitta having been translated or taught during this period, although later records such as the ''Maṇi Kabum'' would have us believe that teachings on compassion and bodhicitta were promulgated. Tibetan Buddhists also believe that the study and practice of bodhicitta and compassion formed a fundamental part of Songtsen Gampo’s promotion of the Buddhist religion, as he was himself considered an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion.

Historical records clearly point to the dissemination of teachings on bodhicitta in Tibet in the eighth century during the reign of Trisong Detsen, the thirty-seventh king of the Yarlung dynasty. Besides inviting to Tibet numerous Buddhist scholars and masters such as Śāntarakṣita, Padmasambhava, and Vimalamitra from India and Mohoyen from China, Tri Songdetsen initiated extensive Buddhist projects, including the construction of Samye Monastery, the institution of the first Tibetan monastic community, and above all the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan from Sanskrit and Chinese. A great number of Mahāyāna sūtras, which contained the teachings on bodhicitta, as well as many tantras and commentaries, were translated toward the end of the eighth century and beginning of the ninth century, as witnessed by the catalogs of texts created around that time. For instance, ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', which elaborates on the cultivation of bodhicitta, and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', two of the main treatises discussing bodhicitta, were translated as part of this massive translation program.

Similarly, tantric texts such as ''The Garland of Views: The King of Pith Instructions'' (''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'')<ref>*''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'' (''Man ngag gi rgyal po lta ba'i 'phreng ba''), in Pe cing Tengyur Q4726, vol. 77, rgyud 'grel, bu, 414b7–419b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG13126_4726.</ref> by Padmasambhava and ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (aka ''Bodhicittabhāvanā'') by Mañjuśrīmitra,<ref>*''Bodhicittabhāvanā'' (''Byang sems rdo la gser zhun''), also known as ''Meditation on Bodhicitta'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2591, vol. 66, rgyud 'grel, cu, 1b1–4b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2591.</ref> which explain the concept of ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric context, were also translated and taught. Mañjuśrīmitra praises bodhicitta in the latter text as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All dharmas considered to be sublime features of liberation
Are qualities of perfecting bodhicitta; they come from bodhicitta.<ref>ཇི་སྙེད་འཕགས་པའི་རྣམ་གྲོལ་ཆོས་སུ་བསྙད་པ་དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྫོགས་ལས་དེ་ཡི་ཡོན་ཏན་དེ་ལས་དེ་དག་བྱུང་། Mañjuśrīmitra, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems sde spyi'i snying po'i bstan bcos byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun'', in Damngak Dzö, vol. 1, ka, 182, fol. 9b2–3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun#tab=Tibetan_Text.</ref>
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Many texts now included in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras (Nyingma Gyubum), such as ''The All Creating King of Bodhicitta'' (''Kulayarājatantra''),<ref>''Sarvadharmamahāśantibodhicittakulayarāja'' (''Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems kun byed rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D828, vol. 97, rnying rgyud, ka, 1b1–86a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0828.</ref> formulate the concept of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and appear to have been translated by Vairocana and others during this period. History also records a debate between the gradualist Indian tradition, led by Kamalaśīla, and the simultaneist Chinese tradition, led by Mohoyen, with King Trisong Detsen as the judge. The Indian side that promoted a gradualist approach to the cultivation of bodhicitta is said to have won, and the king is said to have declared the gradualist Indian tradition to be the official system in Tibet. This period of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet came to be known as the early diffusion period, or ''ngadar'', in contrast to the later diffusion period, or ''chidar'', which took place in Tibet from the eleventh century onward.

The great Buddhist intellectual and spiritual activity in Tibet that included the translation of innumerable works and the open promotion of Buddhist teachings stopped in the middle of the ninth century. As the Yarlung dynasty collapsed due to internecine conflicts, Tibet entered a century and half of political fragmentation and intellectual decline. However, with the revival of Buddhist systems toward the end of the tenth century, Tibet witnessed a resurgence of the study and practice of bodhicitta both in the exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric traditions. Those who preserved the teachings from the early diffusion period became known as the Ancient, or Nyingma, school, while others who brought new teachings from India, Nepal, and Kashmir came to be known as the New, or Sarma, schools. The new schools included some of the leading sects such as Kadam, Kagyu, and Sakya.

Within the Nyingma school, the teachings on bodhicitta continued through the received tradition known as the ''kama'' teachings as well as the new revelations known as ''terma''. The received ''kama'' tradition, which covers the complete range of the Buddhist system, including the nine vehicles, passed on the study and practice of bodhicitta as an essential component of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna path. Most of the books in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras, considered to be apocryphal writings by later critics, began to circulate as Buddhism was revived in the eleventh century. Many of these works described bodhicitta as the state of perfect enlightenment which is latent in beings. This was further enhanced by the ''terma'' literature, which is believed to have been hidden by Padmasambhava and his coterie in the eighth and ninth centuries to be revealed and disseminated by treasure discoverers, or ''tertön''s, at the right time in the future. Composed mostly of ritual liturgies and meditation instructions, the numerous cycles of rediscovered teachings also promoted bodhicitta as a fundamental aspect of Vajrayāna practice.

The new schools equally underscored the importance of bodhicitta in both exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric study and practice. Among the most notable developments in this period was the arrival of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1055) in Tibet in 1042 CE at the invitation of Jangchub Ö, the king of Western Tibet. Historians narrate that with the chaotic and decentralized revival of Buddhism in Tibet toward the end of tenth century, the kings of Western Tibet were alarmed by the wayward conduct of some Buddhist teachers who were abusing tantric practices by making some of the secretive teachings public and taking some of the symbolic teachings literally. Thus, the kings felt the urgency to correct this by inviting an authoritative and eminent master from India, a bill which Atiśa fit perfectly, as he had become renowned as the most erudite and accomplished master in India by this time. Traditional Tibetan historians claim that Yeshe Ö, the monk ruler of Western Tibet and uncle of Jangchub Ö, was taken prisoner in a conflict with the Garlog Turks, who demanded a ransom in gold equal to his size. Yeshe Ö is said to have instructed his nephew to use the gold his nephew had raised to invite Atiśa to Tibet, rather than giving it to the Turks. This story, contested by some modern scholars, is often told to highlight the personal sacrifices made by Tibet’s kings to bring the sacred teachings of the Buddha to Tibet.<ref>See Sam van Schaik, ''Tibet: A History'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 57.</ref>

After two separate emissaries to India led by Gya Lotsāwa Tsöndru Senge (བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེངྒེ་, d.u.) and Naktso Lotsāwa Tsultrim Gyalwa (ནག་འཚོ་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱལ་བ་, 1011–1064) respectively, and after much effort to persuade the abbot of Vikramaśīla, Atiśa was allowed to travel to Tibet. Jangchub Ö received him in Western Tibet, and during his time in the royal court, Atiśa composed ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhipathapradīpa'', (''Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma''), in Derge Tengyur D3947, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 238a6–241a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3947.</ref> a treatise which laid out the spiritual path for three types of persons. This text, along with its autocommentary, highlighted the ethical aspects of the Buddhist path, including the practice of bodhicitta, and would become the exemplar of the ''lamrim'' genre of literature on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Atiśa also composed the short text ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' (''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 294b7–296a1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref> which supplemented his earlier work on the conduct of the bodhisattva. He writes in it:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Cultivate loving kindness and compassion;
Hold firm the thought of enlightenment. (v. 5)<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེ་བསྒོམ་བྱ་ཞིང༌། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ནི་བརྟན་པར་བྱ། ། ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 295a.2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref>
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Besides these two main works on bodhicitta and Mahāyāna, Atiśa also composed numerous other treatises and commentaries, many of them at the request of his Tibetan students. His teachings were spread by his many students, including Dromtön Gyalwai Jungne (འབྲོམ་སྟོན་རྒྱལ་བའི་འབྱུང་གནས་, 1004–64), his lay disciple who established Reting Monastery and launched the Kadam tradition, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab (རྔོག་ལེགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ, eleventh century), who founded Sangpu Neuthok, the famous Buddhist scholastic center in Tibet that flourished from the eleventh–fourteenth centuries. The three chief students of Dromtönpa—Potowa Rinchen Sal (པོ་ཏོ་བ་རིན་ཆེན་གསལ་, 1027–1105), Chengawa Tsultrim Bar (སྤྱན་སྔ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་འབར་, 1033/8–1103), and Puchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen (ཕུ་ཆུང་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1031–1106)—often referred to as the three brothers (''སྐུ་མཆེད་རྣམ་གསུམ་''), developed the Kadam tradition further and initiated the rise of the rich and powerful tradition of Lojong, or mind training. At the heart of the Lojong tradition is the practice of cultivating bodhicitta, particularly through the seven points of cause and effect.

While Atiśa was on his way to Tibet, he met Marpa Chökyi Lodro (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012?–1097) in Kathmandu. Marpa, who declined to be Atiśa’s translator, was at that time on his trip to India to receive teachings from Nāropa. Having received teachings from many masters such as Nāropa, Maitrīpa, and Jñānagarbha, Marpa started giving teachings to numerous disciples in southern Tibet, leading to the establishment of the Marpa Kagyu school. Teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta were disseminated through this school, and they were especially integrated into the instructions on Mahāmudrā and the Six Yogas of Nāropa. These teachings would spread widely in the subsequent centuries through at least twelve different subschools founded by the followers of Marpa.

Before Marpa embarked on his journeys to India, he studied under Drokmi Śākya Yeshe (འབྲོག་མི་ཤཱཀྱ་ཡེ་ཤེས་, 992?–1043/1072), whose fees turned out to be too high for Marpa to afford. Drokmi had traveled to Nepal and India before Marpa and studied under many Buddhist teachers. He also translated many texts, but his specialization lay in the teachings on the Path and Result, or Lamdre (ལམ་འབྲས་), which he received from Gayadhāra (ག་ཡ་དྷ་ར་, 994–1043) and Prajñendraruci (aka Vīravajra, eleventh century). In Tibet, he passed on these teachings to his main disciples, including Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya school, which has championed the teachings of the Path and Result, of which bodhicitta is an essential component.

The bodhicitta teachings propagated by Marpa and Drokmi relied heavily on extensive new tantras such as the ''Hevajra'', ''Cakrasaṃvara'', and ''Guhyasamaja''. They promoted the concept of bodhicitta both in its ethical dimension as the compassionate intention to take all sentient beings to perfect enlightenment and its ontological dimension as the state of ultimate reality. The following statement from the ''Hevajratantra'' sums up this unity:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=That which is called bodhicitta
Is the nonduality of emptiness and compassion.<ref>སྟོང་ཉིད་སྙིང་རྗེ་དབྱེར་མེད་པ། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་རབ་ཏུ་བརྗོད། ། ''Hevajratantra'' (''Kye'i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D417, vol. 80, rgyud, nga, fol. 13a.3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0417.</ref>
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The tantric teachings of the newer Marpa Kagyu and Sakya schools also discuss what Dorji Wangchuk calls the "psycho-physiological form of bodhicitta"—referring to seminal bodily fluids within tantric practices that utilize physical and psychic energies as catalysts for speedy spiritual transformation.<ref>For this discussion in Wangchuk, see chapter 6 in ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 217–23.</ref> Thus, the discussion of bodhicitta in such tantric contexts saw new heights in Tibetan religious discourse as the tantric schools gained prominence and became mainstream Buddhist traditions in Tibet.

Another important tradition through which the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread in Tibet, although the tradition did not take off to the same extent as the Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, and Sakya, is the Shangpa Kagyu, which originated in the famous scholar and meditation master Khyungpo Naljor (Khyung po rnal 'byor, 1050–1127). Khyungpo Naljor visited India and Nepal around seven times and studied under numerous teachers, his main masters being the female savants Sukhasiddhi and Nāropa’s sister Niguma, from whom he received the Six Yogas of Niguma. Similarly, the practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through the tradition of Severance, or Chö (''གཅོད་''), which is said to have begun with Machik Labdron (མ་གཅིག་ལབ་སྒྲོན་, 1055–1149), and Pacification, or Zhije (''ཞི་བྱེད་''), a tradition attributed to Padampa Sangye (ཕ་དམ་པ་སངས་རྒྱས་, eleventh century). ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' by the brahmin Āryadeva, which is a root text of the Chöd tradition, states at the outset:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Take up with respect the practice of refuge and thought of enlightenment
Follow the precepts like protecting one’s eyes.
The precepts of the bodhisattva
Should not be abandoned even at the cost of one’s life. v.5<ref>གུས་པས་སྐྱབས་འགྲོ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་བླང་། །བླངས་པའི་བསླབ་བྱ་མིག་བཞིན་བསྲུང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་བསླབ་བྱ་ནི། །སྲོག་གི་ཕྱིར་ཡང་སྤང་མི་བྱ། ། Āryadeva, ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod (Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999), 14:2-3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:%27phags_pa_shes_rab_kyi_pha_rol_tu_phyin_pa%27i_man_ngag Retrieved on 4/6/2025.</ref>
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Similarly, Padampa Sangye, in one of his famous pieces of advice given to the local people in Dingri, states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The six realms of beings are precious as fields for gathering two accumulations.
Hold a loving mind and compassion, O Dingri people.<ref>ཚོགས་གཉིས་ཡུལ་དུ་རིགས་དྲུག་སེམས་ཅན་གཅེས། །བྱམས་སེམས་ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཟུངས་ཤིག་དིང་རི་བ། ། Padampa Sangye, ''Heart Advice Called The Stack of Lotus'' (''Thugs kyi zhal gdams pad+mo brtsegs pa''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod, 13:449, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Thugs_kyi_zhal_chems_pad_mo_brtsegs_pa#tab=null.</ref>
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The study and practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through other transmissions such as the Kālacakra (more specifically, the six branches of yogic practice associated with Kālacakra teachings) and through the three vajra accomplishment practice of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pel (ཨོ་རྒྱན་པ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1229–1309). These transmissions, along with the teachings and meditation techniques in the Nyingma, Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, Shangpa Kagyu, and Sakya schools, as well as the Severance and Pacification traditions, make up the "eight great chariots of practice" (''སྒྲུབ་བརྒྱུད་ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེ་བརྒྱད་'') and are considered to be the main practice lineages that formed during the Buddhist resurgence of the later diffusion period. It was through these traditions that the study and practice of bodhicitta, as an essential element of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, spread across Tibet.

== The Propagation of Bodhicitta Teachings in Tibet ==

=== The Nyingma School ===
As these Buddhist schools and their associated teachings and practices flourished from the eleventh century onward—having first developed in the eighth century—Tibet also witnessed the sustained spread of bodhicitta teachings. Among the Nyingma, we see the continuous transmission of bodhicitta study and practice both through the received ''kama'' tradition and the new ''terma'' revelations. While the rediscovered ''terma'' teachings focused primarily on ritual texts and meditation instructions that emphasized bodhicitta as a key practice, the ''kama'' tradition presented bodhicitta mainly as an ontological state representing ultimate reality. This was done through discourses on the ground nature, the path of pristine awareness, and the resultant state of the Buddha, all of which were presented as the nondual, innate, luminous nature of the mind.

The three inner tantras of the Nyingma—comprising Mahāyoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga—and the outer mind cycle, inner space cycle, and secret instruction cycle of the Atiyoga or Dzogchen teachings underscored the study and practice of bodhicitta as the innate nature of one’s mind. These tantric presentations were systematized and elaborated in the writings of leading Nyingma masters such as Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, mid-eleventh–early twelfth centuries), Longchenpa Drime Ozer (ཀློང་ཆེན་རབ་འབྱམས་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyel (མངའ་རིས་པཎ་ཆེན་པདྨ་དབང་རྒྱལ་, 1487–1542), Lochen Dharmaśrī (ལོ་ཆེན་དྷརྨ་ཤྲཱི་, 1654–1718), and Jigme Lingpa (འཇིགས་མེད་གླིང་པ་, 1739–1798). Rongzom and Longchenpa, for instance, carried out detailed discussions on bodhicitta in the context of the ultimate nature of the mind in Dzogchen thought, making them the greatest thinkers and masters of the Dzogchen system. In his treatise ''Entering the Way of the Mahāyāna'' (''ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་''), Rongzom discusses bodhicitta in detail and states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The base of all phenomena is included in the mind and appearances of the mind. The nature of the mind is awakening, thus it is called the mind of awakening.<ref>ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་རྩ་བ་ནི་སེམས་དང་སེམས་སྣང་བ་ཙམ་དུ་འདུས་ལ། སེམས་ཀྱི་རང་བཞིན་ཉིད་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཡིན་པས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་བྱའོ།། See Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po’i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:477.</ref>
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He also writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Here, bodhicitta is the cultivation of thought combining wisdom and compassion.<ref>དེ་ལ་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་ནི་འདིར་ཤེས་རབ་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་བསྡུས་པའི་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའོ།། Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po'i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:500.</ref>
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Rongzom, Longchenpa, and Lochen Dharmaśrī also commented on ''The Heart of Secret Tantra'' (''Guhyagarbhatantra''), which highlights the concept of bodhicitta as the innate nature of reality. Rongzom starts his commentary on this tantra with the claim that "bodhicitta is the essence of Three Jewels."<ref>དཀོན་མཆོག་གསུམ་གྱི་རང་བཞིན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Rongzom Chozang, ''Rgyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:33.</ref> With great emphasis on the higher tantric practices, the Nyingma masters vigorously took up the study and practice of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and as the pristine nonconceptual self-awareness of such nature.

The Nyingma masters also covered the concept of bodhicitta as the altruistic intention to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Among them, Longchenpa, who is unrivaled among the Nyingma masters in the systematization and synthesis of the Nyingma teachings in general and the Dzogchen system in particular, was perhaps the first one to discuss the theory and practice of relative bodhicitta in detail. He did this in two of his major works: ''The Treasury of Wish-fulfilling Jewels'' (''ཡིད་བཞིན་མཛོད་'')<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Yid bzhin mdzod rtsa ba'', in Mdzod bdun (a 'dzom par ma) (A 'dzom chos sgar: Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul dpal yul rdzong a 'dzom chos sgar, 1999), 1:3–88, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD8_31FD92.</ref> and ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' (''སེམས་ཉིད་ངལ་གསོ་'').<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:25–113, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_BEDB7A. For an English translation, see Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''Finding Rest in the Nature of the Mind'', vol. 1 of ''The Trilogy of Rest'', by Longchenpa (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, 2017).</ref> Like Rongzompa's description of bodhicitta as the essence of the Three Jewels, Longchenpa claims bodhicitta to be the root of all Dharma in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having become properly accustomed to the immeasurable thoughts,
One must cultivate the two types of bodhicitta, the root of all Dharma.<ref>དེ་ལྟར་ཚད་མེད་ལེགས་པར་གོམས་པ་ཡིས། །ཆོས་ཀུན་རྩ་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་གཉིས་བསྒོམ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes poʼi shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:46–47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
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He also defines bodhicitta in the following manner:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=To cultivate the [bodhicitta] thought is to desire
To reach the perfect buddha for the sake of limitless beings.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་ཚད་མེད་འགྲོ་བའི་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་སངས་རྒྱས་ཐོབ་པར་འདོད་པ་སྟེ། །སྨོན་དང་འཇུག་པའི་རང་བཞིན་གཉིས་ཡིན་ནོ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
}}
Closely following Longchenpa's elaborate discussion of bodhicitta—its definition, types, procedures for taking bodhicitta vow, and precepts—in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' and its two-volume commentary entitled ''The Great Chariot'' (''ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེན་པོ་''),<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'i 'grel pa shing rta chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), vols. 20–21, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref> Ngari Paṇchen carries out a clear and elaborate discussion of bodhicitta and bodhisattva ethics in his ''Ascertaining Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་པ་གསུམ་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ་''),<ref>See Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyal, ''Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'', in Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'i rtsa ba dang mchan 'grel rig pa 'dzin pa'i 'jug ngogs (Bylakuppe: Snga 'gyur mtho slob mdo sngags rig pa'i 'byung gnas, 1996), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23221. For an English translation of the root text, see Khenpo Gyurme Samdrub and Sangye Khandro, trans., ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'', by Ngari Paṇchen Wangyal, with commentary by Dudjom Rinpoche (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2014).</ref> on which Lochen Dharmaśrī wrote a commentary.<ref>See Lochen Dharmaśrī, ''Sdom gsum rtsa ba dang de'i 'grel pa dpag bsam snye ma sogs'' (Gser rta rdzong: Gser thang bla rung lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, n.d.), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN4872.</ref> Dharmaśrī also wrote a detailed explanation of the eighteen root downfalls or transgressions associated with the bodhisattva vow according to ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''. Similarly, Jigme Lingpa deliberated on bodhicitta in ''The Treasury of Precious Qualities'' (''ཡོན་ཏན་མཛོད་'') and in his autocommentary.<ref>See Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod dga' ba'i char'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (A 'dzom par ma: 'Brug spa gror bskyar par btab pa, 1990–1999), 1:29–166, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW7477_19AE1E.</ref>

The master most famous for championing the promotion of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, however, was Patrul Orgyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo (དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་ཨོ་རྒྱན་འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་ཀྱི་དབང་པོ་, 1808–1887). This wandering teacher reportedly taught ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' over a hundred times. His love for and expertise in this text was so remarkable that he was considered an incarnation of the Indian master Śāntideva by his contemporaries. Patrul held regular teaching retreats during which he would expound upon the text and also carry out the cultivation of bodhicitta. In this manner, he left behind a rich tradition of teaching and practicing bodhicitta in general and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in particular. He also authored the famous inspirational work entitled ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''ཀུན་བཟང་བླ་མའི་ཞལ་ལུང་།''),<ref>See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Kun bzang bla ma'i zhal lung'', part 1 and 2 (Kathmandu: Rigpe Dorje Institute, 2024), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-1-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-1/; https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-2-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-2/.</ref> which contains persuasive stories and teachings on compassion and bodhicitta. In one of his prayers, ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (''རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་མཆོག་ཏུ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའི་སྨོན་ལམ།''), he remarks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood.<ref> ཡོད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་དེས་ཆོག་ཅིང་། །མེད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་ཐབས་ཆག་པ། །སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་པའི་ས་བོན་མ་ནོར་བ། །རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་བསྐྱེད་པར་ཤོག ། For the Tibetan text, see Patrul Rinpoche, ''Rnam dag byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i smon lam'' (Lotsawa House, 2010, rev. 2012 & 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/patrul-rinpoche/aspiration-generate-bodhichitta. The translation belongs to Karma Phuntsho.</ref>
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Patrul's inspiration and influence spread beyond his own Nyingma school, especially with regard to his deep understanding and unparalleled expertise in teaching and practicing bodhicitta according to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. In the true spirit of Rime ecumenism of which he was a leading advocate, he would teach this text to different audiences, using the commentaries and giving interpretations which were most appropriate to each group. He did not compose a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as did many other Tibetan masters, but he wrote a guide for putting the text into practice and a powerful outline that captures the content and layout of the entire text with exceptional clarity and cohesion. Patrul became an immensely respected doyen for the study and practice of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', so much so that almost everyone studying and teaching the text after him embraced his lineage and traced their line of transmission to him.

Patrul's students recorded the gems of his insight into ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the commentary they put together. Among the many students who received teachings from him on bodhicitta was Orgyen Tenzin Norbu (ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་ནོར་བུ་, 1841?–1900?), who received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' from Patrul many times and taught it some two hundred times. Both he and Patrul taught Kunzang Palden (ཀུན་བཟང་དཔལ་ལྡན་, 1862–1943), who recorded their instructions in the extensive commentary entitled ''The Nectar of Mañjuśrī's Speech''.<ref>Kunzang Pelden, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i tshig 'grel 'jam dbyangs bla ma'i zhal lung bdud rtsi'i thigs pa'', in Gsung 'bum kun bzang dpal ldan, vol. 1 (Lama Ngodru and Sherab Demy, 1982), 5–746, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23946_57D951. For a bilingual version of the text with English translation by Padmakara, see this site: https://bodhicitta.tsadra.org/index.php/Books/The_Nectar_of_Manjushri%27s_Speech/Sabche.</ref> Another student, Jigme Chöphel Zangpo (འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་དཔལ་བཟང་པོ་, nineteenth century), received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' nine times from Patrul and compiled the notes from him on the first three and the tenth chapters. Minyak Kunzang Sonam (མི་ཉག་ཀུན་བཟང་བསོད་ནམས་, 1823–1905), a scholar from the Geluk tradition, also received teachings on the text nine times from Patrul and composed an extensive commentary.<ref>See Minyak Kunzang Sonam, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel bshad rgyal sras rgya mtsho'i yon tan rin po che mi zad 'jo ba'i bum bzang'', in ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang'' (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990), 1–584, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW15659.</ref>

A student of Patrul who left a significant legacy for the Nyingma tradition was Ju Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (འཇུ་མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912), probably Tibet's greatest polymath. Mipham wrote on a wide range of subjects and left behind an astounding thirty-two volumes covering almost all sciences known to him. His writings on Buddhist philosophy and practice, which contain the Nyingma understanding of Buddhist topics, form the core curriculum for scholastic study and meditation practice in the Nyingma tradition today. ''The Ketaka Gem'' (''ནོར་བུ་ཀེ་ཏ་ཀ་''), his commentary on the ninth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', which he wrote after he received teachings on it from Patrul, is a good example of his philosophical writing.<ref>See Mipham Gyatso, ''Spyod 'jug sher 'grel ke ta ka'' (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4996.</ref> While the text triggered polemical exchanges between him and his opponents, today it is widely read among followers of the Nyingma school. Mipham wrote a great deal on relative and ultimate bodhicitta in a number of his works in the context of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, including a commentary on Mañjuśrīmitra's ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta''.<ref>Mipham Gyatso, ''Byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun gyi mchan 'grel de kho na nyid gsal ba'i sgron me'', in Mi pham rgya mtsho'i gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Gangs can rig gzhung dpe rnying myur skyobs lhan tshogs, 2007), 23:63-95. See also https://online.adarshah.org/index.html?kdb=mipam&sutra=MP203&page=13-3-1ahttps://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun.</ref> The legacies of Patrul and Mipham continued through the works of their students and followers, who vigorously promoted the study and practice of bodhicitta.

The Kham region of Tibet experienced a remarkable renaissance of the Nyingma tradition during the era of the great masters of Patrul and Mipham. This renaissance, which involved many eminent figures, saw a massive burst of new scholarship and ''terma'' revelation as well as the compilation, classification, and reproduction of existing Nyingma literature. Simultaneously, there was also a revitalization of Nyingma monasticism and the development of scholastic activity through the new culture of ''shedra'' exegetical seminaries, which became vibrant centers of scholarship. The literary and institutional legacies left by this renaissance changed the trajectory of the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school.

It was ultimately the Rime movement led by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (འཇམ་དབྱངས་མཁྱེན་བརྩེའི་དབང་པོ་, 1820–1892), Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (འཇམ་མགོན་ཀོང་སྤྲུལ་བློ་གྲོས་མཐའ་ཡས་, 1813–1899), Patrul Rinpoche, and Mipham that had a significant impact on wider Buddhist study and practice. This movement came into being primarily to counteract the sectarian disputes and violence that frequently occurred between Tibetan Buddhist schools. Historical examples of violent sectarian conflicts include clashes between the Sakyapas and Drigungpas (thirteenth–fourteenth centuries), Kagyupas and Gelukpas (seventeenth century), and Nyingma and Geluk schools (eighteenth century). Moreover, the Gelukpa school with the political support of the Gaden Phodrang government had been extending their influence since the fifteenth century, leading to widespread religious prejudice and proselytization. In addition, the Rime masters had reservations about Gelukpa scholasticism, which was codified in individual college textbooks and professed through the eristic study of formulaic argumentation. Mipham particularly expressed such concern about the rigidity, verbosity, and aridity of Gelukpa scholasticism, which was founded on sophistic logic.

To stem this scholastic trend and the doctrinal controversies arising from partisan interpretations, the Rime teachers promoted the reorientation of religious study toward the Indian original texts and an eclectic approach to studying the essential teachings of all Tibetan traditions regardless of one's religious affiliation. This led to a restructuring of scholarly curricula in the ''shedra'' exegetical colleges and fostered some degree of interdenominational learning and teaching by the beginning of the twentieth century. To this effect, Khenpo Zhenga, or Zhenphen Chökyi Nangwa (གཞན་ཕན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྣང་བ་, 1871–1927), an ecumenical abbot of the ''shedra'' in Dzongsar, compiled commentaries on thirteen great classic Indian treatises, including ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yoga'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', which discuss bodhicitta and the bodhisattva path in detail. His commentaries, which are based on the writings by the Indian masters, came to be widely used as the core curriculum in the rising ''shedra'' colleges affiliated with the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya schools.

The study and practice of bodhicitta were flourishing in the scholastic and meditation centers when the People’s Liberation Army swept across Tibet. This was followed by the tragic Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). These events no doubt disrupted the scholarly pursuit of bodhicitta and gave ample opportunities for its practitioners to put it into practice in the face of overwhelming challenges and hardship. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, like in most other Tibetan Buddhist schools, recovered and reached new heights in large centers such as Namdroling Monastery in India and Larung Gar and Yachen in Tibet. These institutions attracted unprecedented numbers of students from Tibet and around the world, all of whom came to pursue Buddhist education through modernized monastic college programs that typically lasted nine years and covered topics such as bodhicitta in comprehensive detail.

=== The Kadam School ===
The Kadam school, which is considered the earliest of the ''sarma'', or new, schools, came to be known as a leading promoter of teachings on bodhicitta. Atiśa Dīpaṃkara is said to have combined in his teachings and practice both the Profound View and Vast Conduct traditions—the two main transmissions of Mahāyāna teachings in general and bodhicitta in particular. He received these transmissions from numerous masters such as Dharmarakṣita, Bodhibhadra, Dharmakīrti, Maitrīyogi, and Nāropa, and passed them down to numerous students, including his three main students—Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, who founded Reting Monastery, Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. The Kadam tradition became formalized as a tradition of seven divinity-dharmas (''བཀའ་གདམས་ལྷ་ཆོས་བདུན་ལྡན་''), which include Śākyamuni, Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, and Acala as four deities and the corpuses of Vinaya, Sūtra, and Abhidharma as the three dharmas.

The founding fathers of Kadam were succeeded by many influential masters, chief among whom were the aforementioned "three Kadam brothers"—Potowa Rinchen Sal, Chengawa Tsultrim Bar, and Phuchungwa Shönu Gyaltsen. As the Kadam tradition evolved, it also saw the development of two distinct lines of practice, especially in terms of the content and style of its teachings. Firstly, the Kadam tradition became a champion of the Lamrim, or stages of path, tradition. The Lamrim tradition revolved around Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', which covered the paths for persons of inferior, middling, and superior capacities. This was supplemented by the six treatises of Kadam (''བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་''), which they adopted as their core scriptural sources. They included Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'', Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''Compendium of Training'', Āryaśūra's ''Garland of Birth Stories'' (''Jātakamāla''),<ref>Āryaśūra, ''Jātakamāla'', in Derge Tengyur D4150, vol. 168, skyes rab, hu, 1b1-135a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4150.</ref> and ''The Collection of Aphorisms'' (''Udānavarga''),<ref>''Udānavarga'' (''Ched du brjod pa'i tshoms''), in Derge Kangyur D326, vol. 72, mdo sde, sa 209a1–253a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0326.</ref> attributed to the historical Buddha. These texts became the main treatises for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Kadam tradition.

Among the early Tibetan ''lamrim'' texts were Potowa's ''Blue Booklet'' (བེའུ་བུམ་སྔོན་མོ།), works by Gönpawa Wangchuk Gyaltsen (དགོན་པ་བ་དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1016–1082) that drew directly from Atiśa's teachings, and texts by Ngok Lekpai Sherap that were based on the teachings of Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung. Stressing the importance of bodhicitta, Potowa, as quoted by Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361), states in ''The Blue Booklet'',
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Knowing them to be just like oneself,
Treat everyone with love and compassion.
By doing so, if one upholds bodhicitta,
Therein lies each and every dharma.<ref>བདག་ཅི་འདྲ་བ་དེ་འདྲར་ཤེས་པས། །ཀུན་ལ་བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་འཇུག་བྱ། །དེས་བསྐྱེད་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དང་ལྡན་ན། །དེ་ལ་ཆོས་རྣམས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀུན་གནས། ། Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, ''Bka' gdams kyi man ngag be'u bum sngon mo'i rtsa 'grel (Lhasa, Sertsu Nangten Penying Tsholdu Chokdrikhang, 2016), 24, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG25234.</ref>
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Potowa also composed ''The Teaching in Similes'' (དཔེ་ཆོས།), which contains similes, sayings, and stories from folk culture employed to illustrate the points related to the spiritual path. Around the same time, a set of literary compositions on the spiritual path closely related to the ''lamrim'' called ''tenrim'' (བསྟན་རིམ་), or stages of the doctrine, developed. ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Doctrine'' (བསྟན་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ།) by Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne (གྲོ་ལུང་པ་བློ་གྲོས་འབྱུང་གནས་, eleventh century) is perhaps the earliest one.<ref>See Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne, ''Bstan rim chen mo'' (Delhi: Norbu Kharphigsi Publications, 2014), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG24221.</ref> These books, in contrast to works in the ''lamrim'' genre which lay out the path for the persons of three capacities, discuss the different teachings in the Buddhist system, taking an inclusive and cohesive approach in order to reconcile the diverse teachings. Some scholars understood the terms ''lamrim'' and ''tenrim'' to be synonyms, but others differentiated the two and considered ''tenrim'' to refer to public discourses and ''lamrim'' to refer to personalized private instructions.

Whatever the case, the approach of seeing all teachings as noncontradictory, understanding all scriptures as pith instructions, fathoming the intent of the Buddha easily, and absolving evil actions spontaneously are seen as the four special qualities of the Kadam tradition. With such an open and inclusive approach, the Kadam master generally embraced all Buddhist teachings. Yet, this did not entail a monotonous and homogenous system. Based on their specializations, the adherents of the Kadam school became divided into the tradition of scriptures (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་པ་) associated with Potowa and the tradition of oral and didactic pith instructions (བཀའ་གདམས་མན་ངག་པ་) associated with Chengawa, the latter further divided by some into essential instructions and oral instructions. In the cases of both the scriptural and instructional traditions, there were numerous other methods, styles, and techniques for presenting the teachings. Potowa favored approaching the teachings through mindfulness of the Buddha, Puchungwa through dependent origination, and Chengawa through the four noble truths. Within a couple generations of its diffusion, the Lamrim tradition of the Kadam school generated numerous commentaries and instructional texts while developing diverse approaches and styles for practicing the ''lamrim'' teachings.

The second most important component of Kadam study and practice was the tradition of Mind Training, or Lojong. Atiśa received various texts and techniques for mind training from his Indian teachers and passed them on to his main disciples, who in turn passed them on to their disciples. The pith instructions for mind training were mostly transmitted as secret teachings (ལྐོག་ཆོས་) in private sessions. Potowa passed down the ''lojong'' transmissions to Sharawa Yönten Drak (ཤ་ར་ཡོན་ཏན་གྲགས་, 1070–1141), whose disciple Tumtön Lodrö Drak (གཏུམ་སྟོན་བློ་གྲོས་གྲགས་, ca. 1106–1166) founded the famous Kadam center of Narthang in 1153, and to Langri Thangpa (གླང་རི་ཐང་པ་, 1054–1123), who composed ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' (''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'').<ref>See Langri Thangpa, ''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'', in Blo sbyong nyer mkho phyogs bsgrigs, ed. Ngag dbang sbyin pa and Cha ris skal bzang thogs med (Kan su: Kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 172–73, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW25275_54767F.</ref> Sharawa passed the instructions on to Chekawa Yeshe Dorje ('Chad kha ba ye shes rdo rje, 1101–1175), who established Cheka Monastery and composed the famous ''Seven-Point Mind Training'' (''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'').<ref>See Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, ''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'i rtsa tshig sogs'', Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1NLM668.</ref> The transmission of ''lojong'' from Chekawa branched into northern and southern traditions and spread widely, with the cultivation of ultimate and relative bodhicitta as its core.

As the Kadam tradition evolved with its wealth of ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' teachings, its main historical records, teachings, and practices were compiled in ''The Book of Kadam'' (''བཀའ་གདམས་གླེགས་བམ་བཏུས་པའི་ཆོས་སྐོར་'').<ref>See Thupten Jinpa, ed., ''Bka' gdams glegs bam las btus pa'i chos skor'' (Delhi: Bod gyi gtsug lag zhib dpyod khang, 2005), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12514. For an English translation, see Thubten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008).</ref> With ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' by Atiśa at its core, the book contains sections called "Father Teachings," which are composed of questions and answers between Atiśa and Dromtönpa, and "Son Teachings," made up of questions and answers between Atiśa and Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. In the chapter discussing how all problems lie in the sole point of self-attachment—an important topic of meditation in the Lojong tradition—Atiśa asks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text="In that case, do you understand the mind's true mode of being?"

"Yes, I do," replied Drom.

Atiśa: "So what need is there of desires for this mind; cultivate contentment. Even though you perceive many sentient beings, all of them are your fathers and mothers who have taken joy in your overcoming of misfortune and [attainment] of good fortune. They have cleaned your runny nose with their mouths, your excrement with their hands, have nurtured you with kingdoms and with gifts, and some, despite having been abandoned [by us], have cared for us again. It is due to the kindness of the teacher that positive qualities are revealed. In general, it is the teacher who has done you the great kindness of granting you your ultimate aim. And it is your parents who are the source of great kindness granting you joy and happiness in this life. You should therefore recognize their kindness and repay their kindness.

"For this, serve the teacher through respectful veneration and meditative practice, and toward your parents, in order to repay their kindness, cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable joy when they are happy, and immeasurable equanimity that is free of discriminating thoughts of near and distant. For the benefit of all—all your mothers—strive as much as possible to attain buddhahood and, discarding lingering doubts, cherish your persistence in meditative practice. Abandoning all obstacles such as sloth, mental dullness, and laziness, endeavor with joyful perseverance.

"Drom, although one speaks of "recognizing the kindness of others and repaying it," it all seems to pertain to the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, such as loving-kindness and compassion; the stabilization of the awakening mind; its enhancement from high to ever higher levels; and the definite steering of one's parents with the paddles of [the two awakening minds,] aspirational and engaging."<ref>Thunten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 125–26.</ref>
}}
These passages and the many texts and teachings in the Lamrim and Lojong traditions of the Kadam school sufficiently demonstrate how bodhicitta forms the bedrock of the Kadam tradition and how the school came to champion its propagation. We also see the gradual development of the structures and procedures for practice, such as the seven instructions of cause and effect.

In addition to its strong practical orientation, the theoretical and philosophical study of bodhicitta also flourished within the Kadam school. This took place mainly through the scholastic education at Sangpu Neutok, the monastic college which was founded by Ngok Lekpai Sherab in 1072 and which rose to be a prominent Kadam center of learning some fifty years after its founding. At its peak, Sangpu Neutok was the most well-known center for scholastic education in Tibet, with alumni that included the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (དུས་གསུམ་མཁྱེན་པ་, 1110–1193), Longchenpa Drime Özer (ཀློང་ཆེན་པ་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (ཙོང་ཁ་པ་བློ་བཟང་གྲགས་པ་, 1357–1419), and Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (རོང་སྟོན་ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་རིག་, 1367–1449), who went to Sangpu for debate sessions. Some forty-five great masters such as Ngok Loden Sherab (རྔོག་བློ་ལྡན་ཤེས་རབ་, 1059–1109), Chapa Chökyi Senge (ཕྱ་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སེང་གེ་, 1109–1169), Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo (ཕག་མོ་གྲུ་པ་རྡོ་རྗེ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1110–1170), Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), Patsab Nyima Drakpa (པ་ཚབ་ཉི་མ་གྲགས་པ་, twelfth century) worked at Sangpu, making it a wonderful enclave of scholarship. Bodhicitta was rigorously studied through lectures, debates, and writing on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', and many other texts.

Another Kadam center where both the theoretical study and practical application of the teachings flourished and where a combination of both the tradition of scriptures and oral instructions thrived was Narthang, located in the Tsang region. Narthang produced great scholars such as Chim Namkha Drak (མཆིམས་ནམ་མཁའ་གྲགས་, 1210–1285), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་, 1219–1299), and Chomden Rikpai Raldri (བཅོམ་ལྡན་རིག་པའི་རལ་གྲི་, 1297–1305), who wrote commentaries on texts discussing bodhicitta and also composed practice manuals for its cultivation. Scholarship on bodhicitta flourished in the Kadam tradition. Some two dozen works, including full commentaries and short treatises, were written on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' alone by authors including Gyamar Jangchub Drak (རྒྱ་དམར་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་གྲགས་, eleventh–twelfth century), Chapa Chökyi Senge, Tsangnakpa Tsöndru Senge (གཙང་ནག་པ་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེང་གེ་, twelfth century), Drotön Dutsi Drak (གྲོ་སྟོན་བདུད་རྩི་གྲགས་, 1153–1232), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, Lodöe Tsungme (བློ་གྲོས་མཚུངས་མེད་, thirteenth century), and Kyitön Drakpa Gyaltsen (སྐྱི་སྟོན་གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, thirteenth century).

An outstanding Kadam luminary of his time was Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཐོགས་མེད་བཟང་པོ་, 1295–1369) of Ngulchu, particularly in terms of teaching and practicing bodhicitta. After studying in Sakya, Bodong, and Shalu Monasteries, Tokme Zangpo composed commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>See, for example, Gyalse Tokme Zangpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel pa legs bshad rgya mtsho'' (Them bu: Kun bzang stobs rgyas, 1975), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12289.</ref> and ''The Seven-Point Mind Training'',<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Commentary on the Seven Points of Mind Training'', by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (Lotsawa House, 2018), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/gyalse-thogme-zangpo/commentary-on-seven-points-mind-training.</ref> but his most significant contribution was ''The Thirty-Seven Bodhisattva Practices'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma''),<ref>See Tokme Zangpo, ''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'' (Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1988), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN15679.</ref> which today ranks among the most popular and influential texts for the study and practice of the path of the bodhisattva. Through these centers and masters, the study and practice of bodhicitta spread widely among the followers of the Kadam school.

The old Kadam tradition gradually declined in the fourteenth century but found a new manifestation in the new Gandenpa school of Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa. An influential monk, literary star, and master meditator, Tsongkhapa gave fresh life to the Kadam school but also departed from some of its old philosophical positions. He composed ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment'' (''ལམ་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ་''),<ref>Tsongkhapa, ''Lam rim chen mo'', in Gsung 'bum tsong kha pa (Zhol) (New Delhi: Mongolian Lama Guru Deva, 1978–1979), 13:39–1084, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW635_093BB6.</ref> a medium-length work on the ''lamrim'' (''ལམ་རིམ་འབྲིང་པོ་''), and a condensed work on the ''lamrim'' called ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'' (''ལམ་གཙོ་རྣམ་གསུམ་'').<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'', by Je Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (Lotsawa House, 2006, rev. 2012), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/bo/tibetan-masters/tsongkhapa/three-principal-aspects.</ref> He also composed works on ''lojong'', presenting a synthesized and structured theory as well as procedures for practice. By then, the old Kadam school declined as its teachings were incorporated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly the new Geluk school, which emerged as a reformed version of the Kadam school to carry on its legacies.

Toward the end of Tsongkhapa's life, the main seat of Ganden Monastery was established, followed soon by the founding of Sera and Drepung. These large monastic centers housed thousands of monks and carried out the rigorous study of bodhicitta in the context of their specific college curriculum (''ཡིག་ཆ་''). The authors of the ''yigcha'' such as Sonam Drakpa (བསོད་ནམས་གྲགས་པ་, 1478–1554), Jamyang Zhepa (འཇམ་དབྱངས་བཞད་པ་, 1648–1721), and Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (རྗེ་བཙུན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1469–1544) presented the definition, divisions, and benefits of bodhicitta during their deliberations on various Buddhist philosophical and moral topics. In fact, bodhicitta is the first of the seventy topics they studied as part of their long course on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. However, these monasteries did not include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' or ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' in their curriculum and study of these texts was carried out separately outside of the monastic curriculum.

Besides the authors of the curriculum, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the new Geluk school was also promoted by the successive Dalai Lamas, Paṇchen Lamas, and Ganden Tripas, as well as by the abbots and other geshes of the three main seats (Ganden, Sera, and Drepung) and the two tantric colleges. The First Dalai Lama, Gedun Drup (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་, 1391–1474), and the First Paṇchen Lama, Lobzang Chökyi Gyaltsen (བློ་བཟང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1570–1662), both wrote on ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' practices. Other inspirational Geluk figures such as Changkya Rolpai Dorje (ལྕང་སྐྱ་རོལ་པའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1717–1786) and Könchok Tenpai Drönme (དཀོན་མཆོག་བསྟན་པའི་སྒྲོན་མེ་, 1762–1823) wrote specific works on the cultivation of bodhicitta. Könchok Tenpai Drönme, for example, presents instructions on how to first cultivate relative bodhicitta, then ultimate bodhicitta, and finally how the two work together. In his instructions for practicing the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, he pretends to be in a debate with selfishness, which he refutes using different arguments.

The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Geluk school, like all other traditions in Tibet, went through tumultuous changes beginning in the middle of the twentieth century with the arrival of the People's Liberation Army and continuing through the Cultural Revolution. For over three decades, the study of bodhicitta in the Geluk school went through its darkest chapter, though many masters did excel in the practice of bodhicitta in the face of severe atrocities.

The bodhicitta teachings were soon revived in India through the establishment of monastic centers for education and practice by Tibetans who had fled Tibet following the upheavals of the 1960s and 70s. These efforts were crowned by the enthusiasm and commitment of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as a global paragon of wisdom and compassion. With dozens of books in multiple languages and public sermons attended by tens of thousands of people, he and his students took the teachings of bodhicitta to an unprecedented level by spreading the teachings across the globe. At the same time, the Geluk tradition also actively adopted the transmission of bodhicitta teachings that were passed down from Patrul Rinpoche. These came via two main lines: through Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen (ཁུ་ནུ་བླ་མ་བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1894?–1977) to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, and through Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823–1905), who wrote an extensive commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' based on Patrul's teachings.

=== The Kagyu School ===
The teachings on bodhicitta coming from the Kadam school were also passed down through the Marpa Kagyu school. The focus of Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012–1097) and his disciple Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040–1123) remained on the esoteric tantric teachings that Marpa brought from India, having received them from teachers such as Nāropa and Maitrīpa. However, Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (སྒམ་པོ་པ་བསོད་ནམས་རིན་ཆེན་, 1079–1153), the third founding father of the Kagyu tradition from the Dakpo region of Tibet, combined the esoteric tantric teachings he received from Milarepa with the Kadam teachings he had received before becoming Milarepa's disciple.<ref>The school later took its new name Dakpo Kagyu after him.</ref> Thus, we see an effective pairing of the relative bodhicitta teachings from the Kadam tradition with the teachings on ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric texts and ''mahāmudrā'' transmission.

This synthesis by Gampopa is best seen in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (''དམ་ཆོས་ཡིད་བཞིན་ནོར་བུ་ཐར་པ་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་རྒྱན་''), which condenses the entire path to buddhahood into six topics, which he puts in the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The buddha-nature is the cause,
Precious and supreme human body, the support,
The virtuous master is the agent,
And his instructions, the expedient technique.
The result is the body of the perfect Buddha,
Who engages in actions for the world with no thought.<ref>རྒྱུ་ནི་བདེ་གཤེགས་སྙིང་པོ་སྟེ། །རྟེན་ནི་མི་ལུས་རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག །རྐྱེན་ནི་དགེ་བའི་བཤེས་གཉེན་ཡིན། །ཐབས་ནི་དེ་ཡི་གདམས་ངག་སྟེ། །འབྲས་བུ་རྫོགས་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྐུ། །ཕྲིན་ལས་རྟོག་མེད་འགྲོ་དོན་མཛད། ། Gampopa Sonam Rinchen, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'' (Thimphu: KMT, 2005), 3.</ref>
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Gampopa discusses both relative and ultimate bodhicitta in some detail in this work, stating concisely that the objects of relative bodhicitta are the state of enlightenment and sentient beings, and that ultimate bodhicitta is the realization of emptiness endowed with compassion that is clear, unperturbed, and free from mental elaborations.<ref>Gampopa, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'', 133 and 137.</ref> He then presents the procedures to obtain the bodhisattva vow, the precepts to follow, the definition and types of bodhicitta, and a detailed treatment of the six perfections as applied bodhicitta. This work would remain a core text for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Dakpo Kagyu tradition.

The four chief disciples of Gampopa started the four Kagyu schools and spread the teachings on bodhicitta. They include the aforementioned Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, who founded the Pakdru Kagyu; Barompa Darma Wangchuk (འབའ་རོམ་པ་དར་མ་དབང་ཕྱུག་, 1127–1199/1200), who established the Barom Kagyu; the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, who established the Karma Kagyu; and Zhang Yudrakpa (ཞང་གཡུ་བྲག་པ་, 1123–1193), who established the Tselpa Kagyu. Pakmodrupa is said to have viewed himself as a servant of all sentient beings and to have lived a life committed to strict morality and service to others. He wrote several works on bodhicitta, including a commentary on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows''<ref>Phakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, ''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa bzhugs pa'i dbu phyogs'', in Gsung 'bum phag mo gru pa rdo rje rgyal po (bris ma), (ga), 27–48, Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG15061_A5D6A7.</ref> and a treatise entitled ''Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva'', not to be confused with Śāntideva's work, although they have the same title in Tibetan. In another text called ''The Great Pearl Garland'' (''སེམས་བསྐྱེད་མུ་ཏིག་ཕྲེང་ཆེན་''), he wrote in praise of bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Other intentions and precepts are like well-cooked food but thoughts and precepts concerning bodhicitta are like the celestial cake with a hundred tastes. The mass of other merits is like a ruler from a castle, while bodhicitta is like the universal monarch ruling over all gods and men. The merit accrued from other virtues is like the light of a firefly, while the merit of bodhicitta is like the blazing disc of the sun.<ref>Pakmodrupa, ''Sems bskyed mu tig phreng chen'', in Gsung 'bum rdo rje rgyal po (N.p: N.p, 1998), 1:571–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23860_764630.</ref>
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Pakmodrupa's eight chief disciples took the teachings further by founding eight subschools of the Pakdru Kagyu. Among them are figures such as Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (འཇིག་རྟེན་མགོན་པོ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1143–1217), who founded the Drikung Kagyu, Lingrepa Pema Dorje (གླིང་རས་པ་པདྨ་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1128–1188), whose disciple Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (གཙང་པ་རྒྱ་རས་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1161–1211) founded the Drukpa Kagyu, and Taklungtangpa Tashi Pal (སྟག་ལུང་ཐང་པ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་དཔལ་, 1142–1209/1210). Jikten Gönpo established Drikung Thil, had a large following, and also wrote many texts on the cultivation of bodhicitta. ''The Experiential Hymns on the Fivefold Mahāmudrā'' (''ཕྱག་རྒྱ་ཆེན་པོ་ལྔ་ལྡན་གྱི་རྟོགས་པའི་མགུར་'') is perhaps the most well-known work. Only five verses, it starts with the following:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If the steed of love and compassion
Does not run for the benefit of others,
It will not be rewarded in the assembly of gods and humans.
Attend, therefore, to the preliminaries.<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེའི་རྟ་ཕོ་ལ། །གཞན་ཕན་གི་དཀྱུས་ཐོག་མ་བཅད་ན། །ཁྲོམ་ལྷ་མིའི་འོར་ཆེ་མི་འབྱུང་བས། །སེམས་སྔོན་འགྲོ་འདི་ལ་ནན་ཏན་མཛོད།།. See Karma Phuntsho, trans., ''Jikten Sumgön's Fivefold Path of Mahāmudrā'' (''Phyag rgya chen po lnga ldan rtogs pa'i mgur''), Buddha-Nature: A Tsadra Foundation Project, recent essays, posted October 2021, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Recent_Essays/Post-50.</ref>
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Like Jikten Gönpo, Tsangpa Gyare, the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu, became a highly influential Kagyu master and spread the teachings on bodhicitta widely. He is said to have sent many waves of students across the Himalayas so that the Drukpa Kagyu teachings could spread across vast distances—as far as a vulture can fly in eighteen days. It has been said in a highly exaggerated claim that half of humanity are followers of the Drukpa Kagyu tradition, half of them paupers, and half of the paupers accomplished saints. The upper Drukpas, went another panegyrical claim, are as many as stars in the sky, the lower Drukpas are as many as the particles of dust on the earth, and the middle Drukpa tradition has 2500 leading hierarchs who are entitled to parasols over their head. No doubt, the teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread widely through the works of Tsangpa Gyare and his followers. Tsangpa Gyare remarked in one of his pieces of advice:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If bodhicitta is not cultivated, all meritorious activities, like an offering of flour to demons will throw one to the currents of worldly concerns.<ref>བྱང་སེམས་རྒྱུད་ལ་མ་སྐྱེས་ན། །བསོད་ནམས་བདུད་ཀྱི་ཕྱེ་གཏོར་འདིས། །ཆོས་བརྒྱད་ཆུ་ལ་བསྐུར་ཉེན་གདའ། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''<i>'</i>Gro mgon rin po che's gsung mgur gyi rim pa'', in 'Gro ba’i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23782_A9B6DF.</ref>
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"If one had compassion like a shepherd," he said, "one would care for both the good and bad."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེ་ལུག་རྫི་འདྲ་ན་བཟང་ངན་མེད་པར་བསྐྱང་སྟེ་མཆི། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''Tsogs chos mno ‘khor ma che ba'', in 'Gro ba'i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 9b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN2232_A2AF3F.</ref>

A leading disciple of Gampopa was Dusum Khyenpa, who established a lineage that became highly influential in Tibetan religion and politics. He was later recognized as the First Karmapa. Dusum Khyenpa founded Tsurphu Monastery in Tibet and had a great following. He taught that Dharma is about benefiting sentient beings and emphasized the importance of loving-kindness and compassion as part of the Mahāyāna path. But it was his successors who excelled in the scholarship on bodhicitta theory and practice. The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (ཀརྨ་པཀྵི་, 1204–1283), mentioned bodhicitta in his writings, but Rangjung Dorje (རང་བྱུང་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1284–1339 ), the Third Karmapa, wrote many important works on ultimate bodhicitta. These included books on the perfection of wisdom, which covered the empty aspect of ultimate bodhicitta, and books on buddha-nature, which covered the luminous aspect of ultimate bodhicitta.

Among the seventeen Karmapas who have become heads of the Kamtsang Kagyu school so far, the Eighth Karmapa, Mikyö Dorje, wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' in which he discusses bodhicitta. He also composed many other short manuals and instructions for bodhicitta practice such as ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang sems kyi khrid'', In Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa: 2004), 19:383–98, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_5E5C5A.</ref> ''Cultivation of Bodhicitta in One Night'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang chub kyi sems sgom tshul zhag gcig ma'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:331–34, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_DE0419.</ref> and ''Instructions for Mind Training''.<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Blo sbyong gi khrid'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:281–96, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_C222BF.</ref> In ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'', he presents guidance on how to generate bodhicitta using a dialogue between Maitreya and Maitrīyogi as the main text. In it, he also gives instructions on how to combine the cultivation of bodhicitta with breathing. Mikyö Dorje also wrote the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka, Cittamātra, and Vajrayāna traditions.

Another major author on bodhicitta belonging to the Kamtshang Kagyu subschool was Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (དཔའ་བོ་གཙུག་ལག་ཕྲེང་བ་, 1504–1564), a historian and commentator on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Besides his commentary on this classical text on bodhicitta, he also authored liturgies for taking the bodhisattva vows for both relative and ultimate bodhicitta and instructions on how to turn both positive and negative life experiences into opportunities for mind training.

The sixteenth century saw another major Kagyu figure belonging to the Drukpa Kagyu subschool. Pema Karpo (པདྨ་དཀར་པོ་, 1527–1592), the Fourth Drukchen of the Drukpa Kagyu school, wrote commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>Pema Karpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'bru 'grel dbu ma'i lam gyi sgron ma'' (Nepal: Shree Gautam Buddha Vihara, 2017), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/a-lamp-for-the-middle-way/.</ref> and ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. He also composed a treatise on the three vows, the second chapter of which deals with the bodhisattva vow and precepts. He also wrote texts related to the lamrim stages of the path to enlightenment and many works on ''mahāmudrā'', which deal with the ultimate form of bodhicitta.

In the nineteenth century, a major Kagyu figure to champion all traditions of Tibetan Buddhist teachings, including the study and practice of bodhicitta, was Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (1813–1899). As a leading promoter of the Rime ecumenical movement in eastern Tibet alongside his teacher and colleague Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892), Kongtrul produced the five great treasuries, including The Treasury of Kagyu Tantras (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད་སྔགས་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Revealed Treasures (རིན་ཆེན་གཏེར་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Instructions (གདམས་ངག་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Knowledge (ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་ཁྱབ་མཛོད་), and The Treasury of Extensive Teachings (རྒྱ་ཆེན་བཀའ་མཛོད་). While the first three are mainly compilations of existing teachings, Kongtrul added many supplements to enrich the collections. In the Treasury of Instructions, he put together the rare and important meditation instructions of all major Tibetan Buddhist transmissions and also composed many instructions and liturgies himself. A good example of this is his composition of the liturgy to take the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka tradition as received via Śāntideva. The two last collections mainly consist of his own encyclopedic writings and include his commentary on Chekawa Yeshe Dorje's ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' and his ''Aspirational Prayer for Mind Training''.

The last great Kagyupa/Nyingmapa promoter of bodhicitta in India in the twentieth century was Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, although he was also more aligned to the Rime ecumenical tradition than a specific sect. Born in North India with deep knowledge of its languages and cultures, and trained in Tibet before Buddhism's decline there, Khunu Rinpoche was uniquely positioned to preserve and transmit bodhicitta teachings during Tibet's takeover by the People's Liberation Army and the subsequent refugee exodus. At such a critical moment, Khunu Rinpoche passed on the profound teachings on bodhicitta to his students, the most eminent among them being the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as the unparalleled paragon of bodhicitta study and practice in modern times. Khunu Rinpoche also composed his very deep and poetic treatise on bodhicitta entitled ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta''.<ref>See Khunu Lama, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, n.d), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ369499.</ref>

Around the same time, another prominent Kagyu master to promote bodhicitta through his writings was Gedun Rinchen (དགེ་འདུན་རིན་ཆེན་, 1926–1997), the sixty-ninth Je Khenpo, or Chief Abbot, of Bhutan. Gedun Rinchen wrote commentaries on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', notes on ''The Way of the Bodisattva'', and several short works on the cultivation of both relative and ultimate bodhicitta. He is perhaps the first Bhutanese author to also write extensively on topics related to bodhicitta, although several other Bhutanese would do so in the twenty-first century. Today, traditional scholarship on bodhicitta among the Kagyu school thrives with an unprecedented number of scholars and masters writing and teaching both in the Himalayan Buddhist areas and in the diaspora.

=== The Sakya School ===
The Sakya school was founded by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102) with the establishment of Sakya center in the Tsang region of Tibet in 1073. In subsequent generations, the school evolved to become renowned for their scholarship and their dedicated practice of the Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on the Path and Result in particular. This was also true with regard to their study and practice of bodhicitta. According to the tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (ས་ཆེན་ཀུན་དགའ་སྙིང་པོ་, 1092–1158), the son of Könchok Gyalpo and the first of the five eminent ancestors of Sakya, is said to have had a vision of Mañjuśrī in which he received the teachings known as ''Parting from the Four Attachments'' (''ཞེན་པ་བཞི་བྲལ་'').<ref>See Ngor pa dpon slob blo gter dbang po, ed., ''Zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Rgyud sde kun btus (glog klad par ma) (Kathmandu: Sachen International, Guru Lama, 2004), 23:727–30, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW27883_DDE525.</ref> The teaching went as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If you are attached to this life, you are not a true spiritual practitioner;
If you are attached to saṃsāra, you have no renunciation;
If you are attached to your own self-interest, you have no bodhicitta;
If there is grasping, you do not have the View.<ref>Rigpa Translations, trans., ''Instruction on Parting from the Four Attachments'', by Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (Lotsawa House, 2011), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/jetsun-drakpa-gyaltsen/parting-four-attachments.</ref>
}}
The third point on parting from the attachment to self-interest underscored the importance of the practice of bodhicitta and compassion in the Sakya spiritual practice. A generation after him, his son Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), who got trained at Sangpu Neutok under the illustrious scholar Chapa Chökyi Senge, carried on the scholarly tradition of Sakya and composed a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel pa'', in ''<i>'</i>Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung'', ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po (Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 68:20–209, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_A992FA.</ref> The younger son, Drakpa Gyaltsen (གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1147–1216), carried on the tradition and composed a summary of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum, reprinted from a set of Derge Parkhang woodblocks (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992-1993), 9:553–91, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_21D2B6.</ref> instructions on ''Parting from the Four Attachments'',<ref>See ''Rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan gyis mdzad pa'i zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Gdams ngag mdzod (Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1979–1981), 6:310–14, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20877_835B23.</ref> a manual for taking the refuge and bodhisattva vows,<ref>See ''Chos spyod rin chen phreng ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:511–46, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_BAE593.</ref> and an exegesis on ''The Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow''.<ref>See Sachen Kunga Nyingpo and Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa gsal bar ston pa shlo ka nyi shu pa'i rnam par bshad pa'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:547–604, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_4967BB.</ref>

The greatest scholar among the five sublime ancestors of Sakya, however, was Ngawang Kunga Gyaltsen, who is popularly known as Sakya Paṇḍita or Sakya Paṇchen (ས་སྐྱ་པཎྜི་ཏ་, 1182–1251). A scholar of exceptional caliber, Sakya Paṇḍita composed many original works, some of which discuss bodhicitta. These include ''Distinguishing the Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་གསུམ་རབ་དབྱེ་''),<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:1–96, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' (''ཐུབ་པའི་དགོངས་པ་རབ་ཏུ་གསལ་བ་''),<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:9–206, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> a liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow, and a collection of scriptural citations to substantiate the points related to bodhicitta.<ref>See ''Dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi cho ga'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:467–503, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_1F51EB and ''Byang chub kyi mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga'i lung sbyor'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:503–24, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_A6BF74.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita bestowed the bodhisattva vow according to the Middle Way tradition and followed this with teachings on ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' so that one's bodhicitta would not decrease but would increase. Yet, it was generally his critical and polemical discourses on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta that often attracted the greatest attention from scholars and readers. For instance, he argued that not all bodhisattva aspiration prayers would come true, for if they did, bodhisattvas would be constantly inflicted by the pain and suffering that they prayed would fall on them. However, he accepted the essential role that bodhicitta played in Buddhist soteriology. "If one mishandles the crux of bodhicitta, other dharma cannot make one fully enlightened,"<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་གནད་འཆུགས་ན། །ཆོས་གཞན་གྱིས་ནི་འཚང་མི་རྒྱ། ། ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:33, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> he argued. Furthermore, he writes,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If one has bodhicitta and skill in means,
Even if one indulges in the five sensory objects,
Such an act becomes an act of great virtue for a bodhisattva.
It is considered as sin by the hearers.<ref>འདོད་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་ལྔར་སྤྱོད་ཀྱང་། །ཐབས་མཁས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ལྡན་ན། །རྒྱལ་སྲས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ཆེན་ཡིན། །ཉན་ཐོས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་སྡིག་པར་གསུངས། ། See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref>
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In his ''Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' and the liturgy on the bodhisattva vow, he presents a brief historical account of the two main Mahāyāna traditions, a clear account of bodhicitta and its types, the ritual for receiving the bodhisattva vow, and the precepts that follow.<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita was succeeded by his nephew Chögyal Pakpa (ཆོས་རྒྱལ་འཕགས་པ་, 1235–1280), who followed his uncle to China and later became the court priest and tutor of Kubilai Khan. Chögyal Pakpa is said to have given the bodhicitta vow to large gatherings of 70,000 people during the Chumik convention in 1270 and to have also administered it to his Mongol disciples in the Yuan court.

The Sakya school, put in place by the five great masters, continued to grow through the works of many great figures on the Tibetan intellectual scene and the many monasteries and centers they founded. In the generation after Chögyal Pakpa, we see the rise of Butön Rinchen Drub (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་, 1290–1364), a Sakya scholar who became the head of Shalu Monastery and was also responsible for the compilation of the first Kangyur and Tengyur canons, today referred to as the Old Narthang Kangyur and Tengyur. Butön left behind a prodigious oeuvre that includes a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa byang chub kyi sems gsal bar byed pa zla ba'i 'od zer'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19:193–614, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_11394D.</ref> a summary of it,<ref>See ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19: 147–92, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_B2DED5.</ref> and a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''.<ref>''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rgya cher bshad pa lung gi snye ma'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy Of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 18:13–740, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_850C4C</ref> He also wrote one of the earliest and elaborate treatises on buddha-nature<ref>See, for example, ''Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 20:1–78, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_9E60DB.</ref> and numerous texts on Vajrayāna, covering ultimate bodhicitta.

An influential contemporary of Butön with a strong connection to the Sakya school was Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361). Initially associated with the Sakya school, Dölpopa undertook Kālacakra practice at Jomonang center, which eventually led him to his exposition of the philosophy of ''zhentong'' (''གཞན་སྟོང་''), or other emptiness. He wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rnam bshad mdo'i don bde blag tu rtogs pa'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon, 1990s?), 5:245–620, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_F64381.</ref> and original works such as ''The Mountain Dharma: Ocean of Definitive Meaning''<ref>See ''Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho zhes bya ba mthar thug thun mong ma yin pa'i man ngag'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 3:191–739, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_CC2A89.</ref> and ''The Fourth Council'',<ref>See ''Bka' bsdu bzhi pa'i don bstan rtsis chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 6:167–204, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_A37792.</ref> which elaborate an understanding of ultimate bodhicitta which is starkly different from the mainstream Sakya position. Dölpopa and his writings, which were carried on by the Jonang school, left behind a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist scholarship and practice.

In the fourteenth century, the Sakya school produced two outstanding scholars who both got trained at Sangpu Neutok. The first was Yaktön Sangye Pal (གཡག་སྟོན་སངས་རྒྱས་དཔལ་, 1350–1414), one of the six scholars known as the Six Ornaments of Tibet who wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Sher phyin mngon rtogs rgyan rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20485.</ref> but did not write any independent work on bodhicitta. The second scholar, Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (1367–1449), in contrast, wrote commentaries on major Indian treatises, including ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>Rongtön Sheja Kunrik, ''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rnam bshad tshig don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 3:3–774, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_96A5D5.</ref> and ''Introduction to the Middle Way''.<ref>''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don rnam nges'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 6:383–752, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_ACD85B.</ref> He also composed many short works on the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta, including a short text containing instructions on how to put ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into practice.<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug sgom rim rin chen rgyan phreng'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 1:508–10, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_876785.</ref>

Scholastic and polemical writings in the Sakya school reached unprecedented heights during the time of Rongtön's students, which included three of the most renowned scholars of their time—Taktsang Sherab Rinchen (སྟག་ཚང་ཤེས་རབ་རིན་ཆེན་, 1405–1477), Śākya Chokden (ཤཱཀྱ་མཆོག་ལྡན་, 1428–1507), and Gorampa Sönam Senge (གོ་རམས་པ་བསོད་ནམས་སེང་གེ་, 1429–1489). Taktsang Sherab Rinchen composed two works on the sciences and philosophical tenet systems and became a vocal critic of Tsongkhapa’s understanding of emptiness but did not write anything significant on bodhicitta. Śākya Chokden wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo dang mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel dang bcas pa'i lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don rgya mtsho'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 3:7–192, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_B4FF1A.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See ''Dbu ma 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don gnad kyi ṭī ka'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 5:291–486, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_D11306.</ref> and on Sakya Paṇḍita's ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'i le'u gsum pa rig 'dzin sdom pa'i skabs kyi 'bel gtam rnam par nges pa legs bshad gser gyi thur ma'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 7:7–244, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_E519EB.</ref> He also wrote a commentary on ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' by Langri Thangpa.<ref>Shākya Chokden, ''Blo sbyong tshig rkang brgyad pa'i rnam bshad don gsum rab tu gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 23:57–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_C4DA34.</ref> An independent thinker, Śākya Chokden introduced a new interpretation of buddha-nature, and his philosophical interpretation often differed from early Sakya masters. Because of this, his colleague Gorampa Sönam Senge, a sharp commentator and debater, became the main authority who established and carried on the Sakya philosophical tradition. Like his teacher Rongtön and his colleague Śākya Chokden, Gorampa wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i dka' ba'i gnas rnam par bshad pa yum don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 6:7–756, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_B6315B.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i dkyus kyi sa bcad pa dang gzhung so so'i dka' ba'i gnas la dpyad pa lta ba ngan sel'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 5:479–758, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_73D3D6.</ref> and also ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Sdom pa gsum gyi rab tu dbye ba'i rnam bshad rgyal ba'i gsung rab kyi dgongs pa gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 9:7–436, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_6EA702.</ref> Gorampa, Śākya Chokden, and Taktsang Sherab Rinchen would become known as Goshāktaksum, a trio of Sakya scholars who were among the harshest critics of Tsongkhapa and his Geluk school of thought.

Another prolific scholar around this time, though not directly related to Sakya, was Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal (བོ་དོང་པཎ་ཆེན་ཕྱོགས་ལས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་, 1376–1451). Chokle Namgyal left behind perhaps the largest collection of writings in Tibet, including commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Dpal de kho na nyid 'dus pa'i rgya mtsho chen po las phar phyin gyi dka' 'grel lung gi snye ma'', in Bo dong phyogs las rnam rgyal gyi gsung 'bum gsar rnyed skor, Par gzhi dang po (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 2:5–386, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD97485_3FDD00.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, Gsung 'bum phyogs las rnam rgyal (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1969–1981), vol. 17, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22103_5D3941.</ref> and an exegetical commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa rab tu gsal ba'', in 'Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung, ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po, Par gzhi dang po (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 73:221–560, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_6A3765.</ref> Scholarship on bodhicitta thrived with the rise of scholasticism from the fourteenth century. The theory of bodhicitta was discussed as the first of the seventy topics covered in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and the practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya tradition took place through the bodhisattva vow and through the instruction on ''Parting from the Four Attachments''. The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya school especially flourished and would culminate in the works of masters such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the Sakya figure who rose to be the leading advocate of the Rime ecumenical movement in the nineteenth century. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo bequeathed an enormous collection of writings that included many dozens of texts on bodhicitta. While he did not write commentaries on the main classical texts as other scholarly Sakya masters did, he composed many works concerning the practice of bodhicitta in the form of practical instructions, liturgies, and historical accounts.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings beyond Asia ==
Although some early cultural transmissions and interactions between Asia and the West occurred in ancient times, the proper transmission of Buddhism, particularly Mahāyāna teachings, to the West has taken place only since the early twentieth century. The general trend of globalization facilitated by the advancement in communication technology and the travel industry, political upheavals such as World War II and the Korean War, and the rise of communism in China, Vietnam, and Tibet all led to the migration of people from Mahāyāna countries in Asia to the West and to the spread of bodhicitta teachings. Western interest in Buddhist cultures was at first largely driven by cultural curiosity and academic interest, often motivated by a colonial agenda. However, this changed by the middle of the twentieth century with the significant growth of serious interest in Eastern spirituality, the introduction of Buddhist Studies in Western universities as part of religious and theological studies, and the rise of Dharma centers for practicing Buddhists.

The initial transmission of Mahāyāna teachings to the West began with the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning of the twentieth century. Figures such as Soyen Shaku (1860–1919) and Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966) brought Zen Buddhism and the Mahāyāna teachings from the Sino-Japanese tradition, while explorer-writers such as Evans Wentz (1878–1965) and Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969) introduced the West to Tibetan Buddhism. These were followed by a rising number of scholars in leading academic institutions, many of whom undertook sustained and in-depth study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the same time, numerous Asian Buddhist teachers from Tibet and East Asia started to establish Dharma centers, particularly in Europe and North America, where people with an interest in Buddhism took up their spiritual practice. Such a diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in general and teachings on bodhicitta in particular was further enhanced by the rising popularity of figures such as the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987).

One way to gauge the spread of the teachings on bodhicitta is to look at the transmission of the main classics on bodhicitta—namely, Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Compendium of Training''. Early translations of these two works, which gained much popularity in India soon after their composition in the eighth century, appeared in Tibetan and Chinese in the ninth and tenth centuries respectively. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' was initially translated into Tibetan by Kawa Paltsek in the eighth century and into Chinese by Tiān Xīzāi (d.1000) in 985 CE. The Tibetan translation went through subsequent revisions at least twice in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by Lotsāwa Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055) and Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) respectively. The text was then translated into Mongolian by Čosgi Odser (ཆོས་ཀྱི་འོད་ཟེར་, fl. 1305–1321) in 1305. ''The Compendium of Training'' was translated into Tibetan by Yeshe De (eighth century) and later revised by Ngok Loden Sherab. It was translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa in the first half of the eleventh century.

In the centuries after their composition, both of these texts appear to have spread quickly beyond North India to places such as Kashmir and Kathmandu. For example, the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project has found forty-one manuscripts related to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', including twelve palm-leaf manuscripts, and the earliest one (located in Kathmandu) dated to 1180 CE. The only existing Sanskrit manuscript of ''The Compendium of Training'', now housed in Cambridge University Library, was also acquired from Kathmandu.

Although these texts attracted much attention in India, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and other traditional Buddhist areas, their transmission to the West occurred only around the beginning of the twentieth century. The first publication of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the Western world took place in Russia in 1889 when Ivan P. Minayev reviewed and published the Sanskrit text using the manuscript brought by Brian Houghton Hodgson from Kathmandu.<ref>I. P. Minayev, "La doctrine du salut dans le Bouddhisme posterieur," ''Zapiski'', no. 4 (1889).</ref> Similarly, ''The Compendium of Training'' was first published through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902 by Cecil Bendall, who used the Sanskrit manuscript obtained by Daniel Wright in 1875 from Kathmandu.<ref>Cecil Bendall, ed., ''Çikshāsamuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhistic Teaching Compiled by Çāntideva Chiefly from Earlier Mahāyāna-Sūtras'' (St Pétersburg: Commissionaires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1902), xxiv.</ref> The first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into a European language was undertaken by Louis de la Vallée Poussin, who translated the text in stages from 1892 onward and completed it in 1907. This was followed by five different translations into French in the twentieth century. Lionel David Barnett produced the first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into English in 1909, although he only did an abridged version. The first complete English translation of the verses appears to have been carried out by Marion Matics.<ref>Marion Leonidas Matics, ''Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The Bodhicaryāvatāra of the Buddhist Poet Śāntideva'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970).</ref> Since then, there have been some seventeen different English translations of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', and writings on this text continue to grow. It is today found in over a dozen European languages. It was also translated into Japanese by Ekai Kawaguchi (1866–1945) and published in 1921, and translations can be found in many other Asian languages.

Śāntideva’s other main work, ''The Compendium of Training'', was edited and published for the first time in the West by Cecil Bendell in 1902. He also started the translation, but it was finished by W. H. D. Rouse and published in 1922. As regards the translation of ''The Compendium of Training'' into other languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930. Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered it into modern Japanese from the Chinese version. The latest and most popular translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' today is the one by the Padmakara Translation Group and that of ''The Compendium of Training'' is the one by Charles Goodman.

Through these academic and religious translations and numerous other writings on bodhicitta, the teachings and practice of bodhicitta have today spread widely in many continents. Yet, the biggest impetus for the promotion of bodhicitta across the world has come from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), an ardent promoter of bodhicitta doctrine and practice. Throughout the decades following the exodus of Tibetans into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lama has tirelessly taught and written about bodhicitta and spread the teachings to large global audiences. Interest in Tibetan Buddhism in general and the bodhicitta teachings has grown rapidly as these teachings, which were previously inaccessible to foreigners, have become easily available.

Moreover, the teachings on bodhicitta and the bodhisattva ideal continue to appeal to modern progressive sensibilities, leading to their adoption and application even beyond religious circles. With influential leaders such as the Dalai Lama promoting these ideas, the rich tradition of bodhicitta—the way of wisdom and compassion—continues to spread in different parts of the world in the twenty-first century in a sustained effort to curb materialism, individualism, egocentricity, aggression, and environmental degradation, which are rampant in the world. This web resource contains extensive materials on bodhicitta in one place, launching a new chapter in the history of bodhicitta teachings. It provides timely support to help students and practitioners easily enhance their knowledge, deepen their understanding, and strengthen their practice.
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Articles/History of Bodhicitta Teachings

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== The Origins of Bodhicitta ==
Tradition would have it that bodhicitta existed since time immemorial, as all buddhas must start their journey by becoming a bodhisattva and one can only do so by cultivating bodhicitta—the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. However, from a historical perspective, the term ''bodhicitta'' and the idea of taking all sentient beings to the state of full enlightenment only emerges with the rise of the Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE. There is no explicit mention of the term ''bodhicitta'' in the Buddhist canon preserved in the Pāli language, which most scholars consider to be the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures.

One can find in the Pāli canon, particularly in the section on past buddhas and the Jātaka tales, references to the historical Buddha generating the first thoughts to become a buddha in his former lifetimes. A good example is the ascetic Sumedha, one of the previous rebirths of the historical Buddha, taking the vow to seek perfect enlightenment for the first time in the presence of Buddha Dīpaṃkara, who confirms his success in the future through a prediction.<ref>See "Sumedha's Wish" and "The History of Buddha Dīpaṅkara" in ''Chronicles of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhavaṃsa'') under Minor Collections (''Khuddakanikāya''), at suttacentral.net, https://suttacentral.net/bv?view=normal&lang=en. Retrieved on May 5, 2025.</ref> Similarly, we also find the story of the Buddha as the brahmin Jotipāla, who takes the vow once again in the presence of Buddha Kāśyapa and receives a prediction from him that he will one day become a buddha. These stories, along with many others about the Buddha as a bodhisattva and his aim to attain perfect enlightenment, are considered by later Buddhist thinkers to exemplify bodhicitta. No doubt, these accounts in the early canonical works contributed to the development of the concept and practice of bodhicitta in later times.

It is notable, however, that the early Buddhist scriptures portray the commitment to seek the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as a privilege reserved for only a select few individuals of high capacity. They do not explicitly mention the wish to pursue enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, nor do they articulate the noble aim of leading all sentient beings to the state of perfect enlightenment. Rather, in these early teachings, the focus is on the pursuit of individual liberation. Although some exceptional beings become fully enlightened buddhas with great compassion for the world, the teachings do not highlight the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta. The compassionate intention to benefit the world becomes more explicit in later times.

The ''Mahāvastu'' (the "Great Event" or "Great Story"), a book from around the second century BCE belonging to the Lokottaravādin school, is perhaps one of the earliest texts to explicitly mention the term ''bodhicitta'' and to present both aspects of bodhicitta: the aim for perfect enlightenment and wish to do so out of compassion for sentient beings.<ref>Jeom-suk Park claims that this appearance of bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' is indeed the first appearance of the term. See Jeom-suk Park, "Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism," ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 51, no. 2 (March 2003): 139.</ref> The verses that mention bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' (MVU) read as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na dhyānahānir bhavate kadācit /
na bodhicittaṃ jahate kadācit // (MVU 2.382)<ref>See Emmanuel Fauré, ed., ''Mahāvastu-avādana'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 2.382, 2.392, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. The #2 here stands for part 2 of the ''Mahāvastu'' as it has been arranged on GRETIL.</ref>

Never is there any falling off in meditation, and never
does he abandon the thought of enlightenment.<ref>See J. J. Jones, trans., ''The Mahāvastu'' (London: Luzac, 1952), 2:344.</ref>
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na bodhicittaṃ vijahati so kadācit /
na khaṇḍaśīlo bhavati asaṃvṛto vā // (MVU 2.392)

Never does he give up the thought of enlightenment.
He never becomes corrupt of morals nor dissolute.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 2:351, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>
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The accounts of the previous lives of the historical Buddha and of Buddha Maitreya (the future Buddha) in the ''Mahāvastu'' chronicle how, for example, during the time of Buddha Suprabhāsa, the historical Buddha as the monk Abhiya and Maitreya as King Vairocana made the aspiration to reach the state of perfect enlightenment and did so out of compassion to benefit the world. Such an aspiration to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of the world gradually evolved into the concept of bodhicitta with the emergence of Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE.
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|quote-text=yasmiṃ samaye satvā bhavensuḥ alenā atrāṇā aśaraṇā aparāyaṇā utsadalolā utsadadoṣā utsadamohā akuśalān dharmā samādāya vartensuḥ yobhūyena ca apāyapratipūrakā bhavensu tasmiṃ kāle tasmiṃ samaye aham anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyehaṃ // taṃ bhaveyaṃ bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukaṃpāya mahato janakāyasyārthāya hitāya sukhāya devānāṃ ca manuṣyāṇāṃ ca // (MVU 1.61)<ref>Fauré, ''Mahāvastu'', 1.161, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>

When beings come to be without refuge, support, protection, shelter, and succour, when they become characterized by fickleness, malice, and folly, when they live in accordance with wrong standards of conduct and generally go to crowd the worlds of woe, then may I awake to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. May I do so for the benefit and welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world, for the sake of the multitude, for the good of devas and men.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 1:50.</ref>
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The earliest Mahāyāna texts to discuss bodhicitta are said to be ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'' (''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'')<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_aSTAdazasAhasrikA-prajJApAramitA55-82.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>’</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fols. 1b1–286a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0012.</ref> and ''The Verses that Summarize the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'').<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8. See Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, ''Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 1.5, 5.5-8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ratnaguNasaMcayagAthA.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See also, ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fols. 1b1-19b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0013.</ref> These texts date to around 100 BCE and both contain the term ''bodhicitta'' and promote the concept of seeking enlightenment out of compassion and love for sentient beings.<ref>See ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'', 16.5 (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fol. 10a and ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 16b.</ref> The term ''bodhicitta'' appears at the beginning of ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', when Subhūti, through the blessings of the Buddha, submits to the Buddha that a bodhisattva "should train to not have pride in having bodhicitta, for such mind is not mind, but mind is by nature luminous."<ref>འདི་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་དེས་ཀྱང་རློམ་སེམས་སུ་མི་བགྱིད་པ་དེ་ལྟར་བསླབ་པར་བགྱིའོ། །དེ་ཅིའི་སླད་དུ་ཞེ་ན། འདི་ལྟར་སེམས་དེ་ནི་སེམས་མ་མཆིས་པ་སྟེ། སེམས་རང་བཞིན་ནི་འོད་གསལ་བ་ལགས་སོ།། ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 3a.</ref>

[[File:Text sample 1 for history of bodhicitta.jpg|900px|class=w-100 h-auto my-4 border rounded|]]

Similarly, in another passage from this same text, which Gareth Sparham calls the "Origin-Passage,"<ref>Gareth Sparham, "Indian Altruism: A Study of the Terms ''bodhicitta'' and ''cittotpāda''," ''Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15, no. 2 (1992): 224–42.</ref> Subhūti advises Śāriputra that a bodhisattva should not think of an action as hardship because one cannot serve the multitude of sentient beings with such a thought.<ref>See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'', fol. 16b. See Edward Conze, T''he Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary'' (Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation, 1975), 93.</ref> Only with the feeling of joy and love toward sentient beings, as though they were one’s father, mother, brother, or sister, will one be able to work for countless sentient beings and cultivate the intention to take all of these beings out of suffering for all times, just as one wishes to take oneself out of suffering for all times.

What, then, could have led to the development of such a noble and high ideal as bodhicitta? Dorji Wangchuk, in his authoritative work on bodhicitta entitled ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study on the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'', speculates that the rise of the bodhicitta concept may have been "driven by a psychological need of the Buddhists to compensate for the loss of the historical Buddha."<ref>See Dorji Wangchuk, ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 89.</ref> After the Buddha’s passing, some of his followers may have sought a substitute for the historical Buddha beyond the corpus of teachings and the Saṅgha community, who, as custodians of the Vinaya discipline that the Buddha designated as his representative, were entrusted with preserving his legacy after his departure. This may have been more common among those who chose to follow a hermetic and reclusive life outside the monastic institutions or sought a different understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and an alternative spiritual approach to what the mainstream monastic establishment offered. The Mahāyāna system is said to have emerged as a result of such a tendency,<ref>See Paul Williams, ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'' (London: Routledge, 2009).</ref> and it is likely that the need for a present buddha figure was strong among such people. In order to have a buddha, one must have a bodhisattva who aspires to become a buddha, and for that one needs to have the resolve or motivation to become a buddha. Thus, the concept of bodhicitta.

Gombrich and Wangchuk also argue that the Buddhist scriptures present the ultimate truth as being eternal and unchanging.<ref>Wangchuk, ''Resolve'', 78. Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'' (London: Routledge, 2006), 121.</ref> Because this truth remains immanent and eternal, individuals who achieve such realization emerge periodically throughout history. This understanding opens the possibility for other persons to attain the same enlightenment that the historical Buddha achieved. Thus, we see the emergence of a plurality of buddhas in early Buddhist teachings, which present six and twenty-four past buddhas as well as future buddhas such as Maitreya. With the rise of Mahāyāna, the pantheon of buddhas increases, and not only are there numerous past and future buddhas, one sees the idea of numerous present buddhas dwelling in different buddha realms situated in the vast expanse of the new Mahāyāna cosmology. With numerous buddhas as examples, cultivating bodhicitta to achieve buddhahood becomes a central theme.

Bodhicitta, as some scholars have argued, was also an expansion and improvement on the concept of ''prathamacitta'', or the initial resolve made by the Buddha to seek perfect enlightenment. This resolve is also presented as ''praṇidhāna'' (Pāli: ''paṇidhāna''), or the earnest aspiration to attain enlightenment. It is also thought to be an enhanced elucidation of ''adhyāśaya'' (Pāli: ''ajjhāsaya''), or the noble intention to earnestly seek enlightenment or benefit others. Some scholars considered ''adhyāśaya'' to be an abbreviation of ''anuttarāyāṃ samyaksambodhau cittam utpādayati'', or the generation of the thought of the unsurpassed perfect buddhahood. Many early Mahāyāna sources also contain the term ''cittotpāda''—the cultivation of the mind—which refers to the generation of the intention to seek perfect enlightenment. In later works, the terms ''bodhicitta'', ''cittotpāda'', and ''bodhicittotpāda'' came to be used synonymously, although they may have had different referents and connotations in the early period of Mahāyāna.

Whatever the main basis of the technical term ''bodhicitta'', the topic of bodhicitta was repeated and further elaborated in other sūtras belonging to the perfection of wisdom class and numerous other Mahāyāna sūtras that emerged in the subsequent centuries. The main sūtras containing the full-blown teachings on bodhicitta include ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra'') in the ''Avataṃsaka'' collection, ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''), ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' (''Sāgaramatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), ''The Questions of Ugraḥ Sūtra'' (''Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra''), ''The Questions of Vīradatta'' (''Vīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'' (''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''), and ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'' (''Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra''), to mention a few. In these sūtras, we see the development of the concept of bodhicitta along with the notions of compassion and wisdom. In many sources, such as ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' and ''The Basket of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisatvapiṭaka''), bodhicitta also refers to the ultimate nature of things or the luminous nature of the mind, which Wangchuk categorizes as ontological bodhicitta.

Besides the numerous canonical Mahāyāna sūtras that discuss and promote bodhicitta, we also see the rise of commentarial literature which deals with the theory and practice of bodhicitta. The foremost champion of the Mahāyāna teachings that included the concept of bodhicitta was Nāgārjuna, who lived roughly between 150 to 250 CE. In his ''Praise of the Diamond Mind'' (''Cittavajrastava'') and ''Praise of Dharmadhātu'' (''Dharmadhātustava''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Cittavajrastava'' (''Sems kyi rdo rje bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1121, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 69b4–70a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1121, and ''Dharmadhātustava'' (''Chos kyi dbyings su bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1118, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 1.63b5–67b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1118.</ref> Nāgārjuna uses the term ''bodhicitta'' to refer to the nature of mind and ultimate reality. However, in ''The Commentary on Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna, he presents bodhicitta as "the thought motivated by great compassion."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེས་བརླན་པའི་སེམས་ཀྱིས་ནི། །འབད་པས་བསྒོམ་པར་བྱ་བ་ཡིན། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittavivaraṇa'' (''Byang chub sems kyi 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1800, rgyud, vol. 35, ngi, fol. 38b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1800.</ref> This, in later times, came to be called ''relative bodhicitta''. In his ''Compendium of Sūtras'' (''Sūtrasamuccaya''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' (''Mdo kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3934, dbu ma, vol. 110, ki, fols. 141b1–215a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3934.</ref> Nāgārjuna presents numerous citations from sūtras to illustrate the rarity and importance of many aspects of Mahāyāna practice, including the supreme thought of awakening, or bodhicitta. Another text on how to take the vow of bodhicitta entitled ''The Ritual for Generating Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādavidhi''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi'' (''Byang chub tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga''), in Derge Tengyur D3966, dbu ma, vol. 112, gi, fols. 237a4–239a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3966.</ref> which contains some detail on the bodhisattva aspirations, is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The Chinese tradition also ascribes to Nāgārjuna a text called ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'' (''Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun''),<ref>For an English translation of this text, see Minoru Kiyota, trans., "The Bodhicitta Śāstra," in ''Esoteric Texts'' (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2015), 103–29.</ref> a tantric text which contains the concept of bodhicitta both as the altruistic mind to take all beings to perfect enlightenment and as the ultimate nature of the mind, or buddha-nature. There is no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of this text.

However, the text attributed to Nāgārjuna which explicitly discusses bodhicitta is his discourse to his royal disciple, claimed to be a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty who ruled in the Deccan plateau in the second century. In fact, Nāgārjuna wrote two homilies, but his ''Epistle to a Friend'' (''suhṛllekhaḥ''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''suhṛllekhaḥ'' (''bshes pa'i spring yig''), in Derge Tengyur D4182,spring yig, vol. 173, nge, fols. 40b4–46b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4182.</ref> does not discuss bodhicitta as does his other work, ''The Precious Garland'' (''Ratnavāli'').<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref> This work discusses bodhicitta, the bodhisattva practices, the stages on the bodhisattva path, and the bodhisattva goal.

In addition to these texts, the Tibetan Tengyur also contains several aspirational prayers for bodhisattva practice that are attributed to Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna’s teachings on bodhicitta, which tradition claims he received from Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom, was passed down mainly through the adherents of the Middle Way school that he initiated. This tradition came to be known as the Profound View tradition and was espoused and propagated by many Buddhist masters from famous universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.

Another famous lineage of bodhicitta teachings known as the Vast Conduct tradition was passed down from Asaṅga (fourth century), who is said to have received the teachings from Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to this tradition, Asaṅga propitiated Maitreya for twelve long years without receiving a vision of Maitreya, even in a dream. Disappointed, Asaṅga gives up the practice of propitiation and leaves his hermitage when he encounters a wretched bitch in agony as her rotting hind is being consumed by maggots. Out of intense compassion, Asaṅga feeds a bit of his own flesh to the dog and uses his tongue to take out the maggots. Disgusted, he does so with closed eyes, but his tongue touches the ground instead of the dog, and Lo, as he opens his eyes, he sees before him Maitreya with his sublime aura. "You have no compassion," Asaṅga complains to Maitreya for not even showing up in his dream, although he worshiped Maitreya for a dozen years. Maitreya tells Asaṅga that he has been near Asaṅga all along but Asaṅga could not see him. Having removed some karmic obscurations after a long retreat, Asaṅga could see Maitreya as a wretched dog. Then, as compassion for the dog stirred within him, Asaṅga removed the obscurations in his mind, making him able to see the divine figure of Maitreya. Maitreya asked Asaṅga to carry him on his shoulder and ask people what they could see. Most people in the town saw nothing, but an old woman saw him carrying a miserable bitch. Subsequently, Maitreya is said to have taken Asaṅga miraculously to Tuṣita Heaven and to have given him the teachings on Maitreya's five works. The three longer treatises of these five works—namely, ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' (''Abhisamayālaṃkāra''), ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), and ''The Ultimate Continuum of Mahāyāna'' (''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'')—varyingly discuss the concept of bodhicitta as an altruistic thought of enlightenment or the nature of one's mind.

In ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', bodhicitta is discussed as the first of the seventy topics related to the Buddhist ground, path, and fruition. We find in this book a very clear definition of bodhicitta, although it uses the term ''cittotpāda''.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=''Cittotpāda'' is the wish to attain the perfect full enlightenment for the sake of others.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་གཞན་དོན་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་རྫོགས་པའི་བྱང་ཆུབ་འདོད། ། Maitreya, ''Abhisamayālaṃkāra'' (''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3786, vol. 80, sher phyin, ka, fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3786.</ref>
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This verse remains the most concise and popular definition of bodhicitta. The text also breaks down bodhicitta into twenty-two types using similes and aligns them to the progression of the bodhisattva path. This same concept is further elaborated in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), in which a whole chapter is dedicated to discussing bodhicitta.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshigs le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, vol. 123, sems tsam, phi, fols. 1a1–39a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref> These two texts by Maitreya and the commentaries on them contain the most detailed theoretical discussions on bodhicitta. In ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', we find not only discussions on relative bodhicitta (i.e., the altruistic thought of enlightenment) but also on ultimate bodhicitta, which is the pristine wisdom discerning the ultimate nature of things.

Asaṅga elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta through his own ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi''), which is a part of his larger work entitled ''The Stages of Yoga Practice'' (''Yogācārabhūmi''). In this work, he points out that bodhicitta has two specific objects.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Therefore, the cultivation of the mind [of enlightenment] aims at enlightenment and also at the welfare of sentient beings.<ref>Asaṅga, ''Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ'' (''Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa las byang chub sems dpa'i sa''), in Derge Tengyur D4037, vol. 129, sems tsam, wi, fol. 7b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4037.</ref>
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It is clear from this statement that Asaṅga is commenting on the definition of bodhicitta provided by Maitreya in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and also in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''. Both Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' and Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' also present the causes and conditions for cultivating bodhicitta. The latter became the main source for the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow in the Vast Conduct tradition. Passed down through Asaṅga, this line of transmission for taking the bodhisattva vow became frequently, though not exclusively, associated with the Mind Only/Yoga Practice school of Mahāyāna. The tradition later became known as the Vast Conduct tradition and was propagated by some of the eminent teachers of bodhicitta.

Besides Nāgārjuna and Asaṅga, the Tibetan tradition also includes Aśvaghoṣa among the early proponents of bodhicitta. Aśvaghoṣa, who is generally believed to have lived sometime within the first two centuries of the common era, was an acclaimed Buddhist poet, dramatist, and the author of poetic works such as ''The Acts of the Buddha'' (''Buddhacarita''), ''Beautiful Nanda'' (''Saundarananda''), and ''The Story of Śāriputra'' (''Śāriputraprakaraṇa''). The Chinese tradition ascribes ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'' (''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra'', ''Dasheng qixin lun'') to Aśvaghoṣa, although modern scholars contest this attribution. The Tibetan Tengyur canon contains two works on relative and ultimate bodhicitta that are considered to be by Aśvaghoṣa,<ref>Aśvaghoṣa, ''Saṃvṛtibodhicittabhāvanopadeśavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge pad+ma spungs pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3911, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 13b4–15a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3911, and ''Paramārthabodhicittabhāvanākramavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Don dam pa byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge rin po che'i sgron ma zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3912, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 15a6–16b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3912.</ref> but there is no known record of the transmission of teachings on bodhicitta from Aśvaghoṣa.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings in India and Beyond ==
It is not clear when the names given to the two traditions of Mahāyāna teachings—the Vast Conduct tradition and the Profound View tradition—were introduced, and the names appear to have undergone different phases. However, written records clearly point to the actual teachings on bodhicitta being passed down through generations of Nāgārjuna's and Asaṅga's followers. For the Profound View school, after Nāgārjuna, his disciple Āryadeva promoted bodhicitta in his writings, particularly in ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yogic Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'').<ref>Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'' (''Bstan bcos bzhi brgya pa zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3846, vol. 97, dbu ma, tsha, fols. 1a1–18a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> "The cultivation of the initial thought of enlightenment," he claimed, "outshines even the merit which can make all beings on earth universal monarchs."<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་སེམས་དང་པོ། །ས་སྟེངས་སྐྱེ་བོ་ཐམས་ཅད་ནི། །འཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བ་ཉིད་འགྱུར་བ། །དེ་དག་བསོད་ནམས་ལས་ཁྱད་འཕགས། ། Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'', fol. 6a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> Similarly, Bhāvaviveka (ca. 500–570 CE) composed his ''Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā''), devoting the opening chapter to the topic of bodhicitta. In it he writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Bodhicitta is the seed of buddhas
Adorned with loving-kindness,
Compassion and knowledge.
The wise shall not abandon it.<ref>བྱམས་པ་དང་ནི་སྙིང་རྗེ་དང་། །ཤེས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྒྱན་པ་ཡི། །སངས་རྒྱས་ས་བོན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Bhāvaviveka, ''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā'' (''Dbu ma'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3855, vol. 98, dbu ma, dza, fols. 2a–2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3855.</ref>
}}
Candrakīrti, the author of ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''),<ref>Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, vol. 102, dbu ma, 'a, fols. 201b1–219a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta in the context of the Mahāyāna path, particularly as understood in the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna. Although Candrakīrti had issues with Bhāvaviveka on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s logical procedures to establish the ultimate truth, they shared the same zest for underscoring the importance of bodhicitta on the bodhisattva path to perfect enlightenment. Candrakīrti organized his famous work using the ten stages of the bodhisattva path and the different levels of bodhicitta. Right at the outset of the work, he declares that bodhicitta, compassion, and the understanding of nonduality are the causes of bodhisattvas.

The most influential champion of bodhicitta teachings in India, however, was undoubtedly Śāntideva, the author of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'')<ref>Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fols. 1a1–40a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> and ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'').<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 3a2–194b52, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. See also the verse summary: ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 1a1–3a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref> Śāntideva probably lived around the beginning of the eighth century CE and was likely born in North India, although we have no evidence or records from his time. Most of what we know about him comes from accounts of his life written long after his time by faithful followers. Like the Buddha, he is said to have been born as a prince in North India but to have renounced his kingdom to pursue a spiritual career through the guidance of his tutelary deity Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom. Śāntideva is said to have reached a high level of erudition and spiritual enlightenment through Mañjuśrī’s blessings, although, outwardly, he appeared as a lazy monk, indulging in eating, sleeping, and relieving himself, thus earning him the nickname Busuku.

As the story goes, it was to mock his indolence and to shame him that his peers persuaded Śāntideva to give a public sermon. Śāntideva agreed and is said to have miraculously climbed on the unreasonably high throne they purposely set up to mock him. Śāntideva then asked the congregation whether they wanted an exposition of a text that already existed or something new. They asked for a new teaching, resulting in Śāntideva's delivery of the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'', or ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva is said to have levitated into the sky as he recited the verse "When existence and nonexistence do not remain before the mind, as there is no other aspect, the mind comes to rest without any grasping."<ref>གང་ཚེ་དངོས་དང་དངོས་མེད་དག ། བློ་ཡི་མདུན་ན་མི་གནས་པ། །དེ་ཚེ་རྣམ་པ་གཞན་མེད་པས། །དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི། ། Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 32a.4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> He rose higher and higher until he disappeared, his voice still being heard. The disappearance into sky could be understood as an allegory for the highest experience of transcendence and emptiness of all conceptual thoughts in Śāntideva’s philosophical system. However, an old manuscript recently discovered in Drepung Monastery states that Śāntideva’s reputation soared after his recitation, resulting in much veneration and offering. And Śāntideva is said to have left Nālandā to avoid the distraction entailed by such attention.<ref>Anonymous, ''Spyod 'jug gi bsdus don dang slob dpon zhi ba lha'i lo rgyus'', in Bka' gdams gsung 'bum phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, Par gzhi dang po (Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), 6:9–14, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD153536_DD71AE.</ref> Thus, Śāntideva's miraculous disappearance into the sky likely represents a later mythological embellishment of the actual circumstances surrounding his departure.

Whatever the case may be of its origins, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' has arguably become the most influential Buddhist work in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition on bodhicitta. In this work, Śāntideva lays out the practice of bodhicitta in ten chapters, making bold claims such as:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Those who wish to crush the many sorrows of existence,
Who wish to quell the pain of living beings,
Who wish to have experience of a myriad joys
Should never turn away from bodhichitta. (1.8)<ref>སྲིད་པའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་གཞོམ་འདོད་ཅིང་། །སེམས་ཅན་མི་བདེ་བསལ་བར་འདོད་པ་དང་། །བདེ་མང་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་སྤྱོད་པར་འདོད་པས་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྟག་ཏུ་གཏང་མི་བྱ། ། This translation belongs to the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 32. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 2a.4–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Since its propagation in the eighth century, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', combining highly inspirational exhortations and incisive philosophical arguments in an evocative poetic language, appears to have become the ''locus classicus'' for bodhicitta study and practice, used and cited by many writers after its appearance. It was Śāntideva who also explicitly presented the meditation on equality between self and others and exchange between self and others as a way to cultivate bodhicitta, as illustrated by the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Do not be downcast, but marshal all your powers;
Make an effort; be the master of yourself!
Practice the equality of self and other;
Practice the exchange of self and other. (7.16)<ref>སྒྱིད་ལུག་མེད་པར་དཔུང་ཚོགས་དང་། །ལྷུར་བླང་བདག་ཉིད་དབང་བྱ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་མཉམ་པ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་བརྗེ་བར་བགྱི། ། This translation is by the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 99. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 20b.5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Traditional Tibetan scholars claimed that over a hundred commentaries were written on Śāntideva’s famous work, but there are only twelve Indian commentaries on it available today. They include works by Prajñākaramati, Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Kalyāṇadeva, Vairocanarakṣita, Vinītadeva, Vibhūticandra, Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, and Atiśa.

While ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' is an original work by Śantideva written in poetic verse, his other major work, ''The Compendium of Training'', is an anthology of citations of passages from sūtras interspersed with his own words. The two works most likely developed simultaneously in an iterative process, the latter being a compilation of sources for the former in verse. ''The Compendium of Training'' was condensed into a shorter verse summary, the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'', the gist of which is presented by the following verses.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions.
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them.<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྡོམ་པ་ནི། །རྒྱས་པར་ཐེག་པ་ཆེ་ལས་འབྱུང་། །གང་གིས་ལྟུང་བར་མི་འགྱུར་བའི། །གནད་ཀྱི་གནས་རྣམས་འདིར་རིག་བྱ། །བདག་གི་ལུས་དང་ལོངས་སྤྱོད་དང་། །དགེ་བ་དུས་གསུམ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས། །སེམས་ཅན་ཀུན་ལ་བཏང་བ་དང་། །དེ་བསྲུང་དག་པ་སྤེལ་བའོ། These are verses 3 and 4 of the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā''. For the Tibetan text, see ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 1b.3–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
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Despite being an important source for bodhisattva practice, there are only two commentarial works on ''The Compendium of Training''. One is an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and the other is a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa.

The study and practice of bodhicitta within the Profound View tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism reached unprecedented heights following the eighth century, largely through the contributions of Śāntideva. In addition to the masters who commented on Śāntideva’s works mentioned above, there were other masters such as Mañjuśrīmitra, Jñānagarbha, Jetāri, Puṇyaśrī, Dhanaśrī, Vimalamitra, Śāntarakṣita, and Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla, who took up the scholarship and practice on bodhicitta. Among them, Mañjuśrīmitra and Jñānagarbha focused on the exposition of ultimate bodhicitta, which discerns the ultimate reality of emptiness, while Jetāri wrote a manual for taking the bodhisattva vow and a practice manual for beginners. In his treatise entitled ''Presenting Twelve Points on the Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa''), Mañjuśrīmitra argues that bodhicitta is the mother of all buddhas, the basis of all disciplines, the foundation of all merit, the source of all enlightened qualities, the basis of liberation, and the supreme path leading to enlightenment.<ref>See ''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2578, vol. 65, rgyud, ngu, fols. 44b4–59a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2578.</ref> However, the most prolific Indian author on bodhicitta belonging to the Middle Way school in the first millennium after Śāntideva was Kamalaśīla. He wrote his trilogy on ''The Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama'') in which he presented the gradual process of the bodhisattva path. He and his teacher Śāntarakṣita, both of whom visited Tibet in the second half of the eighth century, and Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, who traveled to Tibet in the middle of the eleventh century, were the leading doyens who transmitted the teachings on bodhicitta to Tibet.

As for the Vast Conduct tradition, which is supposed to have come down from Maitreya and the pioneer advocate Asaṅga, it continued through Vasubandhu, the younger brother of Asaṅga, who initially followed a non-Mahāyāna school and was critical of Asaṅga's teachings, but later embraced the Mahāyāna school of Mind Only. Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Asaṅga's ''The Compendium of Mahāyāna'' (''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''), and ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Aspiration to Good Actions'' (''Āryabhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja''). Additionally, a work entitled ''Treatise on the Generation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādaśāstra'') is attributed to him. Other commentators and masters who continued the teachings on bodhicitta in this line include Vasubandhu's students Sthiramati, Dignāga, and Guṇaprabha, who wrote various commentaries. They were followed by Jinaputra, Jñānaśrī, Niḥsvabhāvatā, Parahitabhadra, and Sāgaramegha, whose works are included in the Tibetan Tengyur canon. A prominent master of this line was the householder Candragomin,<ref>While there is no complete scholarly consensus, the majority of modern scholarship seems to place Candragomin in either the fifth–sixth centuries CE (the earlier estimate) or more commonly in the seventh century CE (approximately 600–650 CE, with the latter being the more widely accepted timeframe among contemporary scholars.</ref> who authored a treatise called ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'')<ref>See ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4081, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 166b1–167a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4081.</ref> and is said to have challenged Candrakīrti in debate. Śāntarakṣita and Bodhibhadra wrote commentaries on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses''.<ref>See ''Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti'' (''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4082, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 167a6–184b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4082, and ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśakapañjikā'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa'i dka' 'grel''), in Derge Tengyur D4083, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 184b3–217b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4083.</ref> The teachings and instructions in this tradition were passed down to Atiśa mainly by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa in the tenth century.

While the teachings on bodhicitta spread through these two Mahāyāna lineages, Mahāyāna Buddhism also saw the rise of yet another mode of practice and transmission. This was the emergence of what came to be called Vajrayāna or tantric Buddhism, as the system was mainly based on a body of literature called tantras. Purported to be the words of the Buddha just like the Mahāyāna sūtras, these tantras presented a path to enlightenment that included a wide range of mental, verbal, and embodied tools, as well as radical techniques. Focused on the unraveling of the innate mind of enlightenment, it adopted a syncretic approach, using a great number of non-Buddhist rituals and elements infused with Buddhist philosophies and values to bring about an expedient internal transformation. The tantric masters and texts underscored the importance of bodhicitta as an indispensable component of the Vajrayāna path. They promoted the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta as an intention to seek buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings but championed the understanding of bodhicitta as the realization of the innate nature of the mind and existence. We find also in the Vajrayāna teachings the presentation of symbolic and embodied forms of bodhicitta, which Dorji Wangchuk categorizes as psycho-physiological and semeiological bodhicitta. These esoteric Vajrayāna teachings on bodhicitta flourished in India toward the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, when it also started to spread to Tibet.

A couple centuries after their emergence in India, the teachings on bodhicitta began to spread beyond India. The teachings first traveled to Central Asia and from there to China. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', for instance, was translated by Lokakṣema in 179 BCE. This was followed by the translation of many other sūtras and commentaries by translators such as Paramārtha, Dharmarakṣa, Kumārajīva, Buddhabhadra, and Dharmakṣema in the subsequent centuries. These included the main sūtras containing teachings on bodhicitta such as ''The Flower Ornament Sūtra'' (''Avataṃsakasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'', ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'', ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'', ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'', ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'', and the other versions of the perfection of wisdom sūtras. From the accounts of Āryadeva and Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, we can also surmise that the teachings on bodhicitta spread to Ceylon and southeastern parts of Asia.

== The Transmission of Bodhicitta Teachings to Tibet ==
Tibetan historians claim that some Buddhist sūtras, such as ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' (དཔང་སྐོང་ཕྱག་བརྒྱ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ།)<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 1b1–5b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267. No Sanskrit or Chinese versions of this sūtra are known to exist.</ref> and ''The Basket's Display'' (''Karaṇḍavyūhasūtra''),<ref>''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa za ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur, D116, vol. 51, mdo sde, pa, fols. 200a3–247b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0116.</ref> reached Tibet during the reign of the eighth Yarlung king, Lha Thothori, sometime in the fifth century. Although no one in Tibet understood the texts at that time, they contained teachings on altruism and the bodhisattva path. While ''The Basket's Display'' mainly focuses on the virtues of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion, and his mantra, ''oṃ maṇi padme huṃ'', ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' contains homages to buddhas, the twelve sets of the Buddha's teachings, and bodhisattvas. It also explicitly mentions bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I, by the name . . . from now on until I reach the heart of enlightenment, shall cultivate the thought of enlightenment. I shall never let go of the thought of enlightenment. May I never be separated from the sublime virtuous friend.<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 5a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267.</ref>
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The Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on bodhicitta in particular may have spread to Tibet in some form in the seventh century during the reign of the thirty-second Yarlung monarch Songtsen Gampo. During this time Songtsen Gampo took two Buddhist brides—one from Tang China and another from the Kathmandu Valley—and also sent his minister Thönmi Sambhoṭa to India to learn Sanskrit. While we see the general introduction of the Buddhist system at this time, there are no specific records of texts related to bodhicitta having been translated or taught during this period, although later records such as the ''Maṇi Kabum'' would have us believe that teachings on compassion and bodhicitta were promulgated. Tibetan Buddhists also believe that the study and practice of bodhicitta and compassion formed a fundamental part of Songtsen Gampo’s promotion of the Buddhist religion, as he was himself considered an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion.

Historical records clearly point to the dissemination of teachings on bodhicitta in Tibet in the eighth century during the reign of Trisong Detsen, the thirty-seventh king of the Yarlung dynasty. Besides inviting to Tibet numerous Buddhist scholars and masters such as Śāntarakṣita, Padmasambhava, and Vimalamitra from India and Mohoyen from China, Tri Songdetsen initiated extensive Buddhist projects, including the construction of Samye Monastery, the institution of the first Tibetan monastic community, and above all the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan from Sanskrit and Chinese. A great number of Mahāyāna sūtras, which contained the teachings on bodhicitta, as well as many tantras and commentaries, were translated toward the end of the eighth century and beginning of the ninth century, as witnessed by the catalogs of texts created around that time. For instance, ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', which elaborates on the cultivation of bodhicitta, and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', two of the main treatises discussing bodhicitta, were translated as part of this massive translation program.

Similarly, tantric texts such as ''The Garland of Views: The King of Pith Instructions'' (''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'')<ref>*''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'' (''Man ngag gi rgyal po lta ba'i 'phreng ba''), in Pe cing Tengyur Q4726, vol. 77, rgyud 'grel, bu, 414b7–419b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG13126_4726.</ref> by Padmasambhava and ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (aka ''Bodhicittabhāvanā'') by Mañjuśrīmitra,<ref>*''Bodhicittabhāvanā'' (''Byang sems rdo la gser zhun''), also known as ''Meditation on Bodhicitta'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2591, vol. 66, rgyud 'grel, cu, 1b1–4b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2591.</ref> which explain the concept of ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric context, were also translated and taught. Mañjuśrīmitra praises bodhicitta in the latter text as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All dharmas considered to be sublime features of liberation
Are qualities of perfecting bodhicitta; they come from bodhicitta.<ref>ཇི་སྙེད་འཕགས་པའི་རྣམ་གྲོལ་ཆོས་སུ་བསྙད་པ་དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྫོགས་ལས་དེ་ཡི་ཡོན་ཏན་དེ་ལས་དེ་དག་བྱུང་། Mañjuśrīmitra, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems sde spyi'i snying po'i bstan bcos byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun'', in Damngak Dzö, vol. 1, ka, 182, fol. 9b2–3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun#tab=Tibetan_Text.</ref>
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Many texts now included in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras (Nyingma Gyubum), such as ''The All Creating King of Bodhicitta'' (''Kulayarājatantra''),<ref>''Sarvadharmamahāśantibodhicittakulayarāja'' (''Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems kun byed rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D828, vol. 97, rnying rgyud, ka, 1b1–86a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0828.</ref> formulate the concept of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and appear to have been translated by Vairocana and others during this period. History also records a debate between the gradualist Indian tradition, led by Kamalaśīla, and the simultaneist Chinese tradition, led by Mohoyen, with King Trisong Detsen as the judge. The Indian side that promoted a gradualist approach to the cultivation of bodhicitta is said to have won, and the king is said to have declared the gradualist Indian tradition to be the official system in Tibet. This period of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet came to be known as the early diffusion period, or ''ngadar'', in contrast to the later diffusion period, or ''chidar'', which took place in Tibet from the eleventh century onward.

The great Buddhist intellectual and spiritual activity in Tibet that included the translation of innumerable works and the open promotion of Buddhist teachings stopped in the middle of the ninth century. As the Yarlung dynasty collapsed due to internecine conflicts, Tibet entered a century and half of political fragmentation and intellectual decline. However, with the revival of Buddhist systems toward the end of the tenth century, Tibet witnessed a resurgence of the study and practice of bodhicitta both in the exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric traditions. Those who preserved the teachings from the early diffusion period became known as the Ancient, or Nyingma, school, while others who brought new teachings from India, Nepal, and Kashmir came to be known as the New, or Sarma, schools. The new schools included some of the leading sects such as Kadam, Kagyu, and Sakya.

Within the Nyingma school, the teachings on bodhicitta continued through the received tradition known as the ''kama'' teachings as well as the new revelations known as ''terma''. The received ''kama'' tradition, which covers the complete range of the Buddhist system, including the nine vehicles, passed on the study and practice of bodhicitta as an essential component of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna path. Most of the books in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras, considered to be apocryphal writings by later critics, began to circulate as Buddhism was revived in the eleventh century. Many of these works described bodhicitta as the state of perfect enlightenment which is latent in beings. This was further enhanced by the ''terma'' literature, which is believed to have been hidden by Padmasambhava and his coterie in the eighth and ninth centuries to be revealed and disseminated by treasure discoverers, or ''tertön''s, at the right time in the future. Composed mostly of ritual liturgies and meditation instructions, the numerous cycles of rediscovered teachings also promoted bodhicitta as a fundamental aspect of Vajrayāna practice.

The new schools equally underscored the importance of bodhicitta in both exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric study and practice. Among the most notable developments in this period was the arrival of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1055) in Tibet in 1042 CE at the invitation of Jangchub Ö, the king of Western Tibet. Historians narrate that with the chaotic and decentralized revival of Buddhism in Tibet toward the end of tenth century, the kings of Western Tibet were alarmed by the wayward conduct of some Buddhist teachers who were abusing tantric practices by making some of the secretive teachings public and taking some of the symbolic teachings literally. Thus, the kings felt the urgency to correct this by inviting an authoritative and eminent master from India, a bill which Atiśa fit perfectly, as he had become renowned as the most erudite and accomplished master in India by this time. Traditional Tibetan historians claim that Yeshe Ö, the monk ruler of Western Tibet and uncle of Jangchub Ö, was taken prisoner in a conflict with the Garlog Turks, who demanded a ransom in gold equal to his size. Yeshe Ö is said to have instructed his nephew to use the gold his nephew had raised to invite Atiśa to Tibet, rather than giving it to the Turks. This story, contested by some modern scholars, is often told to highlight the personal sacrifices made by Tibet’s kings to bring the sacred teachings of the Buddha to Tibet.<ref>See Sam van Schaik, ''Tibet: A History'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 57.</ref>

After two separate emissaries to India led by Gya Lotsāwa Tsöndru Senge (བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེངྒེ་, d.u.) and Naktso Lotsāwa Tsultrim Gyalwa (ནག་འཚོ་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱལ་བ་, 1011–1064) respectively, and after much effort to persuade the abbot of Vikramaśīla, Atiśa was allowed to travel to Tibet. Jangchub Ö received him in Western Tibet, and during his time in the royal court, Atiśa composed ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhipathapradīpa'', (''Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma''), in Derge Tengyur D3947, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 238a6–241a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3947.</ref> a treatise which laid out the spiritual path for three types of persons. This text, along with its autocommentary, highlighted the ethical aspects of the Buddhist path, including the practice of bodhicitta, and would become the exemplar of the ''lamrim'' genre of literature on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Atiśa also composed the short text ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' (''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 294b7–296a1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref> which supplemented his earlier work on the conduct of the bodhisattva. He writes in it:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Cultivate loving kindness and compassion;
Hold firm the thought of enlightenment. (v. 5)<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེ་བསྒོམ་བྱ་ཞིང༌། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ནི་བརྟན་པར་བྱ། ། ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 295a.2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref>
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Besides these two main works on bodhicitta and Mahāyāna, Atiśa also composed numerous other treatises and commentaries, many of them at the request of his Tibetan students. His teachings were spread by his many students, including Dromtön Gyalwai Jungne (འབྲོམ་སྟོན་རྒྱལ་བའི་འབྱུང་གནས་, 1004–64), his lay disciple who established Reting Monastery and launched the Kadam tradition, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab (རྔོག་ལེགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ, eleventh century), who founded Sangpu Neuthok, the famous Buddhist scholastic center in Tibet that flourished from the eleventh–fourteenth centuries. The three chief students of Dromtönpa—Potowa Rinchen Sal (པོ་ཏོ་བ་རིན་ཆེན་གསལ་, 1027–1105), Chengawa Tsultrim Bar (སྤྱན་སྔ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་འབར་, 1033/8–1103), and Puchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen (ཕུ་ཆུང་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1031–1106)—often referred to as the three brothers (''སྐུ་མཆེད་རྣམ་གསུམ་''), developed the Kadam tradition further and initiated the rise of the rich and powerful tradition of Lojong, or mind training. At the heart of the Lojong tradition is the practice of cultivating bodhicitta, particularly through the seven points of cause and effect.

While Atiśa was on his way to Tibet, he met Marpa Chökyi Lodro (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012?–1097) in Kathmandu. Marpa, who declined to be Atiśa’s translator, was at that time on his trip to India to receive teachings from Nāropa. Having received teachings from many masters such as Nāropa, Maitrīpa, and Jñānagarbha, Marpa started giving teachings to numerous disciples in southern Tibet, leading to the establishment of the Marpa Kagyu school. Teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta were disseminated through this school, and they were especially integrated into the instructions on Mahāmudrā and the Six Yogas of Nāropa. These teachings would spread widely in the subsequent centuries through at least twelve different subschools founded by the followers of Marpa.

Before Marpa embarked on his journeys to India, he studied under Drokmi Śākya Yeshe (འབྲོག་མི་ཤཱཀྱ་ཡེ་ཤེས་, 992?–1043/1072), whose fees turned out to be too high for Marpa to afford. Drokmi had traveled to Nepal and India before Marpa and studied under many Buddhist teachers. He also translated many texts, but his specialization lay in the teachings on the Path and Result, or Lamdre (ལམ་འབྲས་), which he received from Gayadhāra (ག་ཡ་དྷ་ར་, 994–1043) and Prajñendraruci (aka Vīravajra, eleventh century). In Tibet, he passed on these teachings to his main disciples, including Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya school, which has championed the teachings of the Path and Result, of which bodhicitta is an essential component.

The bodhicitta teachings propagated by Marpa and Drokmi relied heavily on extensive new tantras such as the ''Hevajra'', ''Cakrasaṃvara'', and ''Guhyasamaja''. They promoted the concept of bodhicitta both in its ethical dimension as the compassionate intention to take all sentient beings to perfect enlightenment and its ontological dimension as the state of ultimate reality. The following statement from the ''Hevajratantra'' sums up this unity:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=That which is called bodhicitta
Is the nonduality of emptiness and compassion.<ref>སྟོང་ཉིད་སྙིང་རྗེ་དབྱེར་མེད་པ། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་རབ་ཏུ་བརྗོད། ། ''Hevajratantra'' (''Kye'i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D417, vol. 80, rgyud, nga, fol. 13a.3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0417.</ref>
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The tantric teachings of the newer Marpa Kagyu and Sakya schools also discuss what Dorji Wangchuk calls the "psycho-physiological form of bodhicitta"—referring to seminal bodily fluids within tantric practices that utilize physical and psychic energies as catalysts for speedy spiritual transformation.<ref>For this discussion in Wangchuk, see chapter 6 in ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 217–23.</ref> Thus, the discussion of bodhicitta in such tantric contexts saw new heights in Tibetan religious discourse as the tantric schools gained prominence and became mainstream Buddhist traditions in Tibet.

Another important tradition through which the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread in Tibet, although the tradition did not take off to the same extent as the Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, and Sakya, is the Shangpa Kagyu, which originated in the famous scholar and meditation master Khyungpo Naljor (Khyung po rnal 'byor, 1050–1127). Khyungpo Naljor visited India and Nepal around seven times and studied under numerous teachers, his main masters being the female savants Sukhasiddhi and Nāropa’s sister Niguma, from whom he received the Six Yogas of Niguma. Similarly, the practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through the tradition of Severance, or Chö (''གཅོད་''), which is said to have begun with Machik Labdron (མ་གཅིག་ལབ་སྒྲོན་, 1055–1149), and Pacification, or Zhije (''ཞི་བྱེད་''), a tradition attributed to Padampa Sangye (ཕ་དམ་པ་སངས་རྒྱས་, eleventh century). ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' by the brahmin Āryadeva, which is a root text of the Chöd tradition, states at the outset:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Take up with respect the practice of refuge and thought of enlightenment
Follow the precepts like protecting one’s eyes.
The precepts of the bodhisattva
Should not be abandoned even at the cost of one’s life. v.5<ref>གུས་པས་སྐྱབས་འགྲོ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་བླང་། །བླངས་པའི་བསླབ་བྱ་མིག་བཞིན་བསྲུང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་བསླབ་བྱ་ནི། །སྲོག་གི་ཕྱིར་ཡང་སྤང་མི་བྱ། ། Āryadeva, ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod (Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999), 14:2-3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:%27phags_pa_shes_rab_kyi_pha_rol_tu_phyin_pa%27i_man_ngag Retrieved on 4/6/2025.</ref>
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Similarly, Padampa Sangye, in one of his famous pieces of advice given to the local people in Dingri, states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The six realms of beings are precious as fields for gathering two accumulations.
Hold a loving mind and compassion, O Dingri people.<ref>ཚོགས་གཉིས་ཡུལ་དུ་རིགས་དྲུག་སེམས་ཅན་གཅེས། །བྱམས་སེམས་ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཟུངས་ཤིག་དིང་རི་བ། ། Padampa Sangye, ''Heart Advice Called The Stack of Lotus'' (''Thugs kyi zhal gdams pad+mo brtsegs pa''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod, 13:449, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Thugs_kyi_zhal_chems_pad_mo_brtsegs_pa#tab=null.</ref>
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The study and practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through other transmissions such as the Kālacakra (more specifically, the six branches of yogic practice associated with Kālacakra teachings) and through the three vajra accomplishment practice of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pel (ཨོ་རྒྱན་པ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1229–1309). These transmissions, along with the teachings and meditation techniques in the Nyingma, Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, Shangpa Kagyu, and Sakya schools, as well as the Severance and Pacification traditions, make up the "eight great chariots of practice" (''སྒྲུབ་བརྒྱུད་ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེ་བརྒྱད་'') and are considered to be the main practice lineages that formed during the Buddhist resurgence of the later diffusion period. It was through these traditions that the study and practice of bodhicitta, as an essential element of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, spread across Tibet.

== The Propagation of Bodhicitta Teachings in Tibet ==

=== The Nyingma School ===
As these Buddhist schools and their associated teachings and practices flourished from the eleventh century onward—having first developed in the eighth century—Tibet also witnessed the sustained spread of bodhicitta teachings. Among the Nyingma, we see the continuous transmission of bodhicitta study and practice both through the received ''kama'' tradition and the new ''terma'' revelations. While the rediscovered ''terma'' teachings focused primarily on ritual texts and meditation instructions that emphasized bodhicitta as a key practice, the ''kama'' tradition presented bodhicitta mainly as an ontological state representing ultimate reality. This was done through discourses on the ground nature, the path of pristine awareness, and the resultant state of the Buddha, all of which were presented as the nondual, innate, luminous nature of the mind.

The three inner tantras of the Nyingma—comprising Mahāyoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga—and the outer mind cycle, inner space cycle, and secret instruction cycle of the Atiyoga or Dzogchen teachings underscored the study and practice of bodhicitta as the innate nature of one’s mind. These tantric presentations were systematized and elaborated in the writings of leading Nyingma masters such as Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, mid-eleventh–early twelfth centuries), Longchenpa Drime Ozer (ཀློང་ཆེན་རབ་འབྱམས་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyel (མངའ་རིས་པཎ་ཆེན་པདྨ་དབང་རྒྱལ་, 1487–1542), Lochen Dharmaśrī (ལོ་ཆེན་དྷརྨ་ཤྲཱི་, 1654–1718), and Jigme Lingpa (འཇིགས་མེད་གླིང་པ་, 1739–1798). Rongzom and Longchenpa, for instance, carried out detailed discussions on bodhicitta in the context of the ultimate nature of the mind in Dzogchen thought, making them the greatest thinkers and masters of the Dzogchen system. In his treatise ''Entering the Way of the Mahāyāna'' (''ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་''), Rongzom discusses bodhicitta in detail and states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The base of all phenomena is included in the mind and appearances of the mind. The nature of the mind is awakening, thus it is called the mind of awakening.<ref>ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་རྩ་བ་ནི་སེམས་དང་སེམས་སྣང་བ་ཙམ་དུ་འདུས་ལ། སེམས་ཀྱི་རང་བཞིན་ཉིད་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཡིན་པས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་བྱའོ།། See Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po’i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:477.</ref>
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He also writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Here, bodhicitta is the cultivation of thought combining wisdom and compassion.<ref>དེ་ལ་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་ནི་འདིར་ཤེས་རབ་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་བསྡུས་པའི་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའོ།། Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po'i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:500.</ref>
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Rongzom, Longchenpa, and Lochen Dharmaśrī also commented on ''The Heart of Secret Tantra'' (''Guhyagarbhatantra''), which highlights the concept of bodhicitta as the innate nature of reality. Rongzom starts his commentary on this tantra with the claim that "bodhicitta is the essence of Three Jewels."<ref>དཀོན་མཆོག་གསུམ་གྱི་རང་བཞིན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Rongzom Chozang, ''Rgyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:33.</ref> With great emphasis on the higher tantric practices, the Nyingma masters vigorously took up the study and practice of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and as the pristine nonconceptual self-awareness of such nature.

The Nyingma masters also covered the concept of bodhicitta as the altruistic intention to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Among them, Longchenpa, who is unrivaled among the Nyingma masters in the systematization and synthesis of the Nyingma teachings in general and the Dzogchen system in particular, was perhaps the first one to discuss the theory and practice of relative bodhicitta in detail. He did this in two of his major works: ''The Treasury of Wish-fulfilling Jewels'' (''ཡིད་བཞིན་མཛོད་'')<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Yid bzhin mdzod rtsa ba'', in Mdzod bdun (a 'dzom par ma) (A 'dzom chos sgar: Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul dpal yul rdzong a 'dzom chos sgar, 1999), 1:3–88, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD8_31FD92.</ref> and ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' (''སེམས་ཉིད་ངལ་གསོ་'').<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:25–113, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_BEDB7A. For an English translation, see Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''Finding Rest in the Nature of the Mind'', vol. 1 of ''The Trilogy of Rest'', by Longchenpa (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, 2017).</ref> Like Rongzompa's description of bodhicitta as the essence of the Three Jewels, Longchenpa claims bodhicitta to be the root of all Dharma in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having become properly accustomed to the immeasurable thoughts,
One must cultivate the two types of bodhicitta, the root of all Dharma.<ref>དེ་ལྟར་ཚད་མེད་ལེགས་པར་གོམས་པ་ཡིས། །ཆོས་ཀུན་རྩ་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་གཉིས་བསྒོམ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes poʼi shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:46–47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
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He also defines bodhicitta in the following manner:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=To cultivate the [bodhicitta] thought is to desire
To reach the perfect buddha for the sake of limitless beings.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་ཚད་མེད་འགྲོ་བའི་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་སངས་རྒྱས་ཐོབ་པར་འདོད་པ་སྟེ། །སྨོན་དང་འཇུག་པའི་རང་བཞིན་གཉིས་ཡིན་ནོ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
}}
Closely following Longchenpa's elaborate discussion of bodhicitta—its definition, types, procedures for taking bodhicitta vow, and precepts—in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' and its two-volume commentary entitled ''The Great Chariot'' (''ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེན་པོ་''),<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'i 'grel pa shing rta chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), vols. 20–21, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref> Ngari Paṇchen carries out a clear and elaborate discussion of bodhicitta and bodhisattva ethics in his ''Ascertaining Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་པ་གསུམ་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ་''),<ref>See Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyal, ''Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'', in Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'i rtsa ba dang mchan 'grel rig pa 'dzin pa'i 'jug ngogs (Bylakuppe: Snga 'gyur mtho slob mdo sngags rig pa'i 'byung gnas, 1996), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23221. For an English translation of the root text, see Khenpo Gyurme Samdrub and Sangye Khandro, trans., ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'', by Ngari Paṇchen Wangyal, with commentary by Dudjom Rinpoche (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2014).</ref> on which Lochen Dharmaśrī wrote a commentary.<ref>See Lochen Dharmaśrī, ''Sdom gsum rtsa ba dang de'i 'grel pa dpag bsam snye ma sogs'' (Gser rta rdzong: Gser thang bla rung lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, n.d.), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN4872.</ref> Dharmaśrī also wrote a detailed explanation of the eighteen root downfalls or transgressions associated with the bodhisattva vow according to ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''. Similarly, Jigme Lingpa deliberated on bodhicitta in ''The Treasury of Precious Qualities'' (''ཡོན་ཏན་མཛོད་'') and in his autocommentary.<ref>See Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod dga' ba'i char'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (A 'dzom par ma: 'Brug spa gror bskyar par btab pa, 1990–1999), 1:29–166, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW7477_19AE1E.</ref>

The master most famous for championing the promotion of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, however, was Patrul Orgyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo (དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་ཨོ་རྒྱན་འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་ཀྱི་དབང་པོ་, 1808–1887). This wandering teacher reportedly taught ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' over a hundred times. His love for and expertise in this text was so remarkable that he was considered an incarnation of the Indian master Śāntideva by his contemporaries. Patrul held regular teaching retreats during which he would expound upon the text and also carry out the cultivation of bodhicitta. In this manner, he left behind a rich tradition of teaching and practicing bodhicitta in general and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in particular. He also authored the famous inspirational work entitled ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''ཀུན་བཟང་བླ་མའི་ཞལ་ལུང་།''),<ref>See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Kun bzang bla ma'i zhal lung'', part 1 and 2 (Kathmandu: Rigpe Dorje Institute, 2024), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-1-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-1/; https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-2-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-2/.</ref> which contains persuasive stories and teachings on compassion and bodhicitta. In one of his prayers, ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (''རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་མཆོག་ཏུ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའི་སྨོན་ལམ།''), he remarks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood.<ref> ཡོད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་དེས་ཆོག་ཅིང་། །མེད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་ཐབས་ཆག་པ། །སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་པའི་ས་བོན་མ་ནོར་བ། །རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་བསྐྱེད་པར་ཤོག ། For the Tibetan text, see Patrul Rinpoche, ''Rnam dag byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i smon lam'' (Lotsawa House, 2010, rev. 2012 & 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/patrul-rinpoche/aspiration-generate-bodhichitta. The translation belongs to Karma Phuntsho.</ref>
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Patrul's inspiration and influence spread beyond his own Nyingma school, especially with regard to his deep understanding and unparalleled expertise in teaching and practicing bodhicitta according to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. In the true spirit of Rime ecumenism of which he was a leading advocate, he would teach this text to different audiences, using the commentaries and giving interpretations which were most appropriate to each group. He did not compose a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as did many other Tibetan masters, but he wrote a guide for putting the text into practice and a powerful outline that captures the content and layout of the entire text with exceptional clarity and cohesion. Patrul became an immensely respected doyen for the study and practice of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', so much so that almost everyone studying and teaching the text after him embraced his lineage and traced their line of transmission to him.

Patrul's students recorded the gems of his insight into ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the commentary they put together. Among the many students who received teachings from him on bodhicitta was Orgyen Tenzin Norbu (ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་ནོར་བུ་, 1841?–1900?), who received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' from Patrul many times and taught it some two hundred times. Both he and Patrul taught Kunzang Palden (ཀུན་བཟང་དཔལ་ལྡན་, 1862–1943), who recorded their instructions in the extensive commentary entitled ''The Nectar of Mañjuśrī's Speech''.<ref>Kunzang Pelden, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i tshig 'grel 'jam dbyangs bla ma'i zhal lung bdud rtsi'i thigs pa'', in Gsung 'bum kun bzang dpal ldan, vol. 1 (Lama Ngodru and Sherab Demy, 1982), 5–746, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23946_57D951. For a bilingual version of the text with English translation by Padmakara, see this site: https://bodhicitta.tsadra.org/index.php/Books/The_Nectar_of_Manjushri%27s_Speech/Sabche.</ref> Another student, Jigme Chöphel Zangpo (འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་དཔལ་བཟང་པོ་, nineteenth century), received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' nine times from Patrul and compiled the notes from him on the first three and the tenth chapters. Minyak Kunzang Sonam (མི་ཉག་ཀུན་བཟང་བསོད་ནམས་, 1823–1905), a scholar from the Geluk tradition, also received teachings on the text nine times from Patrul and composed an extensive commentary.<ref>See Minyak Kunzang Sonam, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel bshad rgyal sras rgya mtsho'i yon tan rin po che mi zad 'jo ba'i bum bzang'', in ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang'' (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990), 1–584, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW15659.</ref>

A student of Patrul who left a significant legacy for the Nyingma tradition was Ju Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (འཇུ་མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912), probably Tibet's greatest polymath. Mipham wrote on a wide range of subjects and left behind an astounding thirty-two volumes covering almost all sciences known to him. His writings on Buddhist philosophy and practice, which contain the Nyingma understanding of Buddhist topics, form the core curriculum for scholastic study and meditation practice in the Nyingma tradition today. ''The Ketaka Gem'' (''ནོར་བུ་ཀེ་ཏ་ཀ་''), his commentary on the ninth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', which he wrote after he received teachings on it from Patrul, is a good example of his philosophical writing.<ref>See Mipham Gyatso, ''Spyod 'jug sher 'grel ke ta ka'' (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4996.</ref> While the text triggered polemical exchanges between him and his opponents, today it is widely read among followers of the Nyingma school. Mipham wrote a great deal on relative and ultimate bodhicitta in a number of his works in the context of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, including a commentary on Mañjuśrīmitra's ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta''.<ref>Mipham Gyatso, ''Byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun gyi mchan 'grel de kho na nyid gsal ba'i sgron me'', in Mi pham rgya mtsho'i gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Gangs can rig gzhung dpe rnying myur skyobs lhan tshogs, 2007), 23:63-95. See also https://online.adarshah.org/index.html?kdb=mipam&sutra=MP203&page=13-3-1ahttps://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun.</ref> The legacies of Patrul and Mipham continued through the works of their students and followers, who vigorously promoted the study and practice of bodhicitta.

The Kham region of Tibet experienced a remarkable renaissance of the Nyingma tradition during the era of the great masters of Patrul and Mipham. This renaissance, which involved many eminent figures, saw a massive burst of new scholarship and ''terma'' revelation as well as the compilation, classification, and reproduction of existing Nyingma literature. Simultaneously, there was also a revitalization of Nyingma monasticism and the development of scholastic activity through the new culture of ''shedra'' exegetical seminaries, which became vibrant centers of scholarship. The literary and institutional legacies left by this renaissance changed the trajectory of the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school.

It was ultimately the Rime movement led by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (འཇམ་དབྱངས་མཁྱེན་བརྩེའི་དབང་པོ་, 1820–1892), Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (འཇམ་མགོན་ཀོང་སྤྲུལ་བློ་གྲོས་མཐའ་ཡས་, 1813–1899), Patrul Rinpoche, and Mipham that had a significant impact on wider Buddhist study and practice. This movement came into being primarily to counteract the sectarian disputes and violence that frequently occurred between Tibetan Buddhist schools. Historical examples of violent sectarian conflicts include clashes between the Sakyapas and Drigungpas (thirteenth–fourteenth centuries), Kagyupas and Gelukpas (seventeenth century), and Nyingma and Geluk schools (eighteenth century). Moreover, the Gelukpa school with the political support of the Gaden Phodrang government had been extending their influence since the fifteenth century, leading to widespread religious prejudice and proselytization. In addition, the Rime masters had reservations about Gelukpa scholasticism, which was codified in individual college textbooks and professed through the eristic study of formulaic argumentation. Mipham particularly expressed such concern about the rigidity, verbosity, and aridity of Gelukpa scholasticism, which was founded on sophistic logic.

To stem this scholastic trend and the doctrinal controversies arising from partisan interpretations, the Rime teachers promoted the reorientation of religious study toward the Indian original texts and an eclectic approach to studying the essential teachings of all Tibetan traditions regardless of one's religious affiliation. This led to a restructuring of scholarly curricula in the ''shedra'' exegetical colleges and fostered some degree of interdenominational learning and teaching by the beginning of the twentieth century. To this effect, Khenpo Zhenga, or Zhenphen Chökyi Nangwa (གཞན་ཕན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྣང་བ་, 1871–1927), an ecumenical abbot of the ''shedra'' in Dzongsar, compiled commentaries on thirteen great classic Indian treatises, including ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yoga'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', which discuss bodhicitta and the bodhisattva path in detail. His commentaries, which are based on the writings by the Indian masters, came to be widely used as the core curriculum in the rising ''shedra'' colleges affiliated with the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya schools.

The study and practice of bodhicitta were flourishing in the scholastic and meditation centers when the People’s Liberation Army swept across Tibet. This was followed by the tragic Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). These events no doubt disrupted the scholarly pursuit of bodhicitta and gave ample opportunities for its practitioners to put it into practice in the face of overwhelming challenges and hardship. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, like in most other Tibetan Buddhist schools, recovered and reached new heights in large centers such as Namdroling Monastery in India and Larung Gar and Yachen in Tibet. These institutions attracted unprecedented numbers of students from Tibet and around the world, all of whom came to pursue Buddhist education through modernized monastic college programs that typically lasted nine years and covered topics such as bodhicitta in comprehensive detail.

=== The Kadam School ===
The Kadam school, which is considered the earliest of the ''sarma'', or new, schools, came to be known as a leading promoter of teachings on bodhicitta. Atiśa Dīpaṃkara is said to have combined in his teachings and practice both the Profound View and Vast Conduct traditions—the two main transmissions of Mahāyāna teachings in general and bodhicitta in particular. He received these transmissions from numerous masters such as Dharmarakṣita, Bodhibhadra, Dharmakīrti, Maitrīyogi, and Nāropa, and passed them down to numerous students, including his three main students—Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, who founded Reting Monastery, Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. The Kadam tradition became formalized as a tradition of seven divinity-dharmas (''བཀའ་གདམས་ལྷ་ཆོས་བདུན་ལྡན་''), which include Śākyamuni, Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, and Acala as four deities and the corpuses of Vinaya, Sūtra, and Abhidharma as the three dharmas.

The founding fathers of Kadam were succeeded by many influential masters, chief among whom were the aforementioned "three Kadam brothers"—Potowa Rinchen Sal, Chengawa Tsultrim Bar, and Phuchungwa Shönu Gyaltsen. As the Kadam tradition evolved, it also saw the development of two distinct lines of practice, especially in terms of the content and style of its teachings. Firstly, the Kadam tradition became a champion of the Lamrim, or stages of path, tradition. The Lamrim tradition revolved around Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', which covered the paths for persons of inferior, middling, and superior capacities. This was supplemented by the six treatises of Kadam (''བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་''), which they adopted as their core scriptural sources. They included Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'', Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''Compendium of Training'', Āryaśūra's ''Garland of Birth Stories'' (''Jātakamāla''),<ref>Āryaśūra, ''Jātakamāla'', in Derge Tengyur D4150, vol. 168, skyes rab, hu, 1b1-135a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4150.</ref> and ''The Collection of Aphorisms'' (''Udānavarga''),<ref>''Udānavarga'' (''Ched du brjod pa'i tshoms''), in Derge Kangyur D326, vol. 72, mdo sde, sa 209a1–253a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0326.</ref> attributed to the historical Buddha. These texts became the main treatises for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Kadam tradition.

Among the early Tibetan ''lamrim'' texts were Potowa's ''Blue Booklet'' (བེའུ་བུམ་སྔོན་མོ།), works by Gönpawa Wangchuk Gyaltsen (དགོན་པ་བ་དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1016–1082) that drew directly from Atiśa's teachings, and texts by Ngok Lekpai Sherap that were based on the teachings of Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung. Stressing the importance of bodhicitta, Potowa, as quoted by Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361), states in ''The Blue Booklet'',
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Knowing them to be just like oneself,
Treat everyone with love and compassion.
By doing so, if one upholds bodhicitta,
Therein lies each and every dharma.<ref>བདག་ཅི་འདྲ་བ་དེ་འདྲར་ཤེས་པས། །ཀུན་ལ་བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་འཇུག་བྱ། །དེས་བསྐྱེད་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དང་ལྡན་ན། །དེ་ལ་ཆོས་རྣམས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀུན་གནས། ། Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, ''Bka' gdams kyi man ngag be'u bum sngon mo'i rtsa 'grel (Lhasa, Sertsu Nangten Penying Tsholdu Chokdrikhang, 2016), 24, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG25234.</ref>
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Potowa also composed ''The Teaching in Similes'' (དཔེ་ཆོས།), which contains similes, sayings, and stories from folk culture employed to illustrate the points related to the spiritual path. Around the same time, a set of literary compositions on the spiritual path closely related to the ''lamrim'' called ''tenrim'' (བསྟན་རིམ་), or stages of the doctrine, developed. ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Doctrine'' (བསྟན་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ།) by Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne (གྲོ་ལུང་པ་བློ་གྲོས་འབྱུང་གནས་, eleventh century) is perhaps the earliest one.<ref>See Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne, ''Bstan rim chen mo'' (Delhi: Norbu Kharphigsi Publications, 2014), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG24221.</ref> These books, in contrast to works in the ''lamrim'' genre which lay out the path for the persons of three capacities, discuss the different teachings in the Buddhist system, taking an inclusive and cohesive approach in order to reconcile the diverse teachings. Some scholars understood the terms ''lamrim'' and ''tenrim'' to be synonyms, but others differentiated the two and considered ''tenrim'' to refer to public discourses and ''lamrim'' to refer to personalized private instructions.

Whatever the case, the approach of seeing all teachings as noncontradictory, understanding all scriptures as pith instructions, fathoming the intent of the Buddha easily, and absolving evil actions spontaneously are seen as the four special qualities of the Kadam tradition. With such an open and inclusive approach, the Kadam master generally embraced all Buddhist teachings. Yet, this did not entail a monotonous and homogenous system. Based on their specializations, the adherents of the Kadam school became divided into the tradition of scriptures (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་པ་) associated with Potowa and the tradition of oral and didactic pith instructions (བཀའ་གདམས་མན་ངག་པ་) associated with Chengawa, the latter further divided by some into essential instructions and oral instructions. In the cases of both the scriptural and instructional traditions, there were numerous other methods, styles, and techniques for presenting the teachings. Potowa favored approaching the teachings through mindfulness of the Buddha, Puchungwa through dependent origination, and Chengawa through the four noble truths. Within a couple generations of its diffusion, the Lamrim tradition of the Kadam school generated numerous commentaries and instructional texts while developing diverse approaches and styles for practicing the ''lamrim'' teachings.

The second most important component of Kadam study and practice was the tradition of Mind Training, or Lojong. Atiśa received various texts and techniques for mind training from his Indian teachers and passed them on to his main disciples, who in turn passed them on to their disciples. The pith instructions for mind training were mostly transmitted as secret teachings (ལྐོག་ཆོས་) in private sessions. Potowa passed down the ''lojong'' transmissions to Sharawa Yönten Drak (ཤ་ར་ཡོན་ཏན་གྲགས་, 1070–1141), whose disciple Tumtön Lodrö Drak (གཏུམ་སྟོན་བློ་གྲོས་གྲགས་, ca. 1106–1166) founded the famous Kadam center of Narthang in 1153, and to Langri Thangpa (གླང་རི་ཐང་པ་, 1054–1123), who composed ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' (''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'').<ref>See Langri Thangpa, ''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'', in Blo sbyong nyer mkho phyogs bsgrigs, ed. Ngag dbang sbyin pa and Cha ris skal bzang thogs med (Kan su: Kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 172–73, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW25275_54767F.</ref> Sharawa passed the instructions on to Chekawa Yeshe Dorje ('Chad kha ba ye shes rdo rje, 1101–1175), who established Cheka Monastery and composed the famous ''Seven-Point Mind Training'' (''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'').<ref>See Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, ''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'i rtsa tshig sogs'', Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1NLM668.</ref> The transmission of ''lojong'' from Chekawa branched into northern and southern traditions and spread widely, with the cultivation of ultimate and relative bodhicitta as its core.

As the Kadam tradition evolved with its wealth of ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' teachings, its main historical records, teachings, and practices were compiled in ''The Book of Kadam'' (''བཀའ་གདམས་གླེགས་བམ་བཏུས་པའི་ཆོས་སྐོར་'').<ref>See Thupten Jinpa, ed., ''Bka' gdams glegs bam las btus pa'i chos skor'' (Delhi: Bod gyi gtsug lag zhib dpyod khang, 2005), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12514. For an English translation, see Thubten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008).</ref> With ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' by Atiśa at its core, the book contains sections called "Father Teachings," which are composed of questions and answers between Atiśa and Dromtönpa, and "Son Teachings," made up of questions and answers between Atiśa and Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. In the chapter discussing how all problems lie in the sole point of self-attachment—an important topic of meditation in the Lojong tradition—Atiśa asks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text="In that case, do you understand the mind's true mode of being?"

"Yes, I do," replied Drom.

Atiśa: "So what need is there of desires for this mind; cultivate contentment. Even though you perceive many sentient beings, all of them are your fathers and mothers who have taken joy in your overcoming of misfortune and [attainment] of good fortune. They have cleaned your runny nose with their mouths, your excrement with their hands, have nurtured you with kingdoms and with gifts, and some, despite having been abandoned [by us], have cared for us again. It is due to the kindness of the teacher that positive qualities are revealed. In general, it is the teacher who has done you the great kindness of granting you your ultimate aim. And it is your parents who are the source of great kindness granting you joy and happiness in this life. You should therefore recognize their kindness and repay their kindness.

"For this, serve the teacher through respectful veneration and meditative practice, and toward your parents, in order to repay their kindness, cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable joy when they are happy, and immeasurable equanimity that is free of discriminating thoughts of near and distant. For the benefit of all—all your mothers—strive as much as possible to attain buddhahood and, discarding lingering doubts, cherish your persistence in meditative practice. Abandoning all obstacles such as sloth, mental dullness, and laziness, endeavor with joyful perseverance.

"Drom, although one speaks of "recognizing the kindness of others and repaying it," it all seems to pertain to the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, such as loving-kindness and compassion; the stabilization of the awakening mind; its enhancement from high to ever higher levels; and the definite steering of one's parents with the paddles of [the two awakening minds,] aspirational and engaging."<ref>Thunten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 125–26.</ref>
}}
These passages and the many texts and teachings in the Lamrim and Lojong traditions of the Kadam school sufficiently demonstrate how bodhicitta forms the bedrock of the Kadam tradition and how the school came to champion its propagation. We also see the gradual development of the structures and procedures for practice, such as the seven instructions of cause and effect.

In addition to its strong practical orientation, the theoretical and philosophical study of bodhicitta also flourished within the Kadam school. This took place mainly through the scholastic education at Sangpu Neutok, the monastic college which was founded by Ngok Lekpai Sherab in 1072 and which rose to be a prominent Kadam center of learning some fifty years after its founding. At its peak, Sangpu Neutok was the most well-known center for scholastic education in Tibet, with alumni that included the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (དུས་གསུམ་མཁྱེན་པ་, 1110–1193), Longchenpa Drime Özer (ཀློང་ཆེན་པ་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (ཙོང་ཁ་པ་བློ་བཟང་གྲགས་པ་, 1357–1419), and Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (རོང་སྟོན་ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་རིག་, 1367–1449), who went to Sangpu for debate sessions. Some forty-five great masters such as Ngok Loden Sherab (རྔོག་བློ་ལྡན་ཤེས་རབ་, 1059–1109), Chapa Chökyi Senge (ཕྱ་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སེང་གེ་, 1109–1169), Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo (ཕག་མོ་གྲུ་པ་རྡོ་རྗེ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1110–1170), Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), Patsab Nyima Drakpa (པ་ཚབ་ཉི་མ་གྲགས་པ་, twelfth century) worked at Sangpu, making it a wonderful enclave of scholarship. Bodhicitta was rigorously studied through lectures, debates, and writing on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', and many other texts.

Another Kadam center where both the theoretical study and practical application of the teachings flourished and where a combination of both the tradition of scriptures and oral instructions thrived was Narthang, located in the Tsang region. Narthang produced great scholars such as Chim Namkha Drak (མཆིམས་ནམ་མཁའ་གྲགས་, 1210–1285), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་, 1219–1299), and Chomden Rikpai Raldri (བཅོམ་ལྡན་རིག་པའི་རལ་གྲི་, 1297–1305), who wrote commentaries on texts discussing bodhicitta and also composed practice manuals for its cultivation. Scholarship on bodhicitta flourished in the Kadam tradition. Some two dozen works, including full commentaries and short treatises, were written on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' alone by authors including Gyamar Jangchub Drak (རྒྱ་དམར་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་གྲགས་, eleventh–twelfth century), Chapa Chökyi Senge, Tsangnakpa Tsöndru Senge (གཙང་ནག་པ་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེང་གེ་, twelfth century), Drotön Dutsi Drak (གྲོ་སྟོན་བདུད་རྩི་གྲགས་, 1153–1232), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, Lodöe Tsungme (བློ་གྲོས་མཚུངས་མེད་, thirteenth century), and Kyitön Drakpa Gyaltsen (སྐྱི་སྟོན་གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, thirteenth century).

An outstanding Kadam luminary of his time was Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཐོགས་མེད་བཟང་པོ་, 1295–1369) of Ngulchu, particularly in terms of teaching and practicing bodhicitta. After studying in Sakya, Bodong, and Shalu Monasteries, Tokme Zangpo composed commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>See, for example, Gyalse Tokme Zangpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel pa legs bshad rgya mtsho'' (Them bu: Kun bzang stobs rgyas, 1975), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12289.</ref> and ''The Seven-Point Mind Training'',<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Commentary on the Seven Points of Mind Training'', by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (Lotsawa House, 2018), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/gyalse-thogme-zangpo/commentary-on-seven-points-mind-training.</ref> but his most significant contribution was ''The Thirty-Seven Bodhisattva Practices'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma''),<ref>See Tokme Zangpo, ''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'' (Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1988), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN15679.</ref> which today ranks among the most popular and influential texts for the study and practice of the path of the bodhisattva. Through these centers and masters, the study and practice of bodhicitta spread widely among the followers of the Kadam school.

The old Kadam tradition gradually declined in the fourteenth century but found a new manifestation in the new Gandenpa school of Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa. An influential monk, literary star, and master meditator, Tsongkhapa gave fresh life to the Kadam school but also departed from some of its old philosophical positions. He composed ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment'' (''ལམ་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ་''),<ref>Tsongkhapa, ''Lam rim chen mo'', in Gsung 'bum tsong kha pa (Zhol) (New Delhi: Mongolian Lama Guru Deva, 1978–1979), 13:39–1084, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW635_093BB6.</ref> a medium-length work on the ''lamrim'' (''ལམ་རིམ་འབྲིང་པོ་''), and a condensed work on the ''lamrim'' called ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'' (''ལམ་གཙོ་རྣམ་གསུམ་'').<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'', by Je Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (Lotsawa House, 2006, rev. 2012), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/bo/tibetan-masters/tsongkhapa/three-principal-aspects.</ref> He also composed works on ''lojong'', presenting a synthesized and structured theory as well as procedures for practice. By then, the old Kadam school declined as its teachings were incorporated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly the new Geluk school, which emerged as a reformed version of the Kadam school to carry on its legacies.

Toward the end of Tsongkhapa's life, the main seat of Ganden Monastery was established, followed soon by the founding of Sera and Drepung. These large monastic centers housed thousands of monks and carried out the rigorous study of bodhicitta in the context of their specific college curriculum (''ཡིག་ཆ་''). The authors of the ''yigcha'' such as Sonam Drakpa (བསོད་ནམས་གྲགས་པ་, 1478–1554), Jamyang Zhepa (འཇམ་དབྱངས་བཞད་པ་, 1648–1721), and Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (རྗེ་བཙུན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1469–1544) presented the definition, divisions, and benefits of bodhicitta during their deliberations on various Buddhist philosophical and moral topics. In fact, bodhicitta is the first of the seventy topics they studied as part of their long course on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. However, these monasteries did not include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' or ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' in their curriculum and study of these texts was carried out separately outside of the monastic curriculum.

Besides the authors of the curriculum, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the new Geluk school was also promoted by the successive Dalai Lamas, Paṇchen Lamas, and Ganden Tripas, as well as by the abbots and other geshes of the three main seats (Ganden, Sera, and Drepung) and the two tantric colleges. The First Dalai Lama, Gedun Drup (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་, 1391–1474), and the First Paṇchen Lama, Lobzang Chökyi Gyaltsen (བློ་བཟང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1570–1662), both wrote on ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' practices. Other inspirational Geluk figures such as Changkya Rolpai Dorje (ལྕང་སྐྱ་རོལ་པའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1717–1786) and Könchok Tenpai Drönme (དཀོན་མཆོག་བསྟན་པའི་སྒྲོན་མེ་, 1762–1823) wrote specific works on the cultivation of bodhicitta. Könchok Tenpai Drönme, for example, presents instructions on how to first cultivate relative bodhicitta, then ultimate bodhicitta, and finally how the two work together. In his instructions for practicing the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, he pretends to be in a debate with selfishness, which he refutes using different arguments.

The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Geluk school, like all other traditions in Tibet, went through tumultuous changes beginning in the middle of the twentieth century with the arrival of the People's Liberation Army and continuing through the Cultural Revolution. For over three decades, the study of bodhicitta in the Geluk school went through its darkest chapter, though many masters did excel in the practice of bodhicitta in the face of severe atrocities.

The bodhicitta teachings were soon revived in India through the establishment of monastic centers for education and practice by Tibetans who had fled Tibet following the upheavals of the 1960s and 70s. These efforts were crowned by the enthusiasm and commitment of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as a global paragon of wisdom and compassion. With dozens of books in multiple languages and public sermons attended by tens of thousands of people, he and his students took the teachings of bodhicitta to an unprecedented level by spreading the teachings across the globe. At the same time, the Geluk tradition also actively adopted the transmission of bodhicitta teachings that were passed down from Patrul Rinpoche. These came via two main lines: through Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen (ཁུ་ནུ་བླ་མ་བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1894?–1977) to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, and through Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823–1905), who wrote an extensive commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' based on Patrul's teachings.

=== The Kagyu School ===
The teachings on bodhicitta coming from the Kadam school were also passed down through the Marpa Kagyu school. The focus of Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012–1097) and his disciple Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040–1123) remained on the esoteric tantric teachings that Marpa brought from India, having received them from teachers such as Nāropa and Maitrīpa. However, Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (སྒམ་པོ་པ་བསོད་ནམས་རིན་ཆེན་, 1079–1153), the third founding father of the Kagyu tradition from the Dakpo region of Tibet, combined the esoteric tantric teachings he received from Milarepa with the Kadam teachings he had received before becoming Milarepa's disciple.<ref>The school later took its new name Dakpo Kagyu after him.</ref> Thus, we see an effective pairing of the relative bodhicitta teachings from the Kadam tradition with the teachings on ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric texts and ''mahāmudrā'' transmission.

This synthesis by Gampopa is best seen in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (''དམ་ཆོས་ཡིད་བཞིན་ནོར་བུ་ཐར་པ་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་རྒྱན་''), which condenses the entire path to buddhahood into six topics, which he puts in the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The buddha-nature is the cause,
Precious and supreme human body, the support,
The virtuous master is the agent,
And his instructions, the expedient technique.
The result is the body of the perfect Buddha,
Who engages in actions for the world with no thought.<ref>རྒྱུ་ནི་བདེ་གཤེགས་སྙིང་པོ་སྟེ། །རྟེན་ནི་མི་ལུས་རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག །རྐྱེན་ནི་དགེ་བའི་བཤེས་གཉེན་ཡིན། །ཐབས་ནི་དེ་ཡི་གདམས་ངག་སྟེ། །འབྲས་བུ་རྫོགས་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྐུ། །ཕྲིན་ལས་རྟོག་མེད་འགྲོ་དོན་མཛད། ། Gampopa Sonam Rinchen, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'' (Thimphu: KMT, 2005), 3.</ref>
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Gampopa discusses both relative and ultimate bodhicitta in some detail in this work, stating concisely that the objects of relative bodhicitta are the state of enlightenment and sentient beings, and that ultimate bodhicitta is the realization of emptiness endowed with compassion that is clear, unperturbed, and free from mental elaborations.<ref>Gampopa, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'', 133 and 137.</ref> He then presents the procedures to obtain the bodhisattva vow, the precepts to follow, the definition and types of bodhicitta, and a detailed treatment of the six perfections as applied bodhicitta. This work would remain a core text for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Dakpo Kagyu tradition.

The four chief disciples of Gampopa started the four Kagyu schools and spread the teachings on bodhicitta. They include the aforementioned Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, who founded the Pakdru Kagyu; Barompa Darma Wangchuk (འབའ་རོམ་པ་དར་མ་དབང་ཕྱུག་, 1127–1199/1200), who established the Barom Kagyu; the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, who established the Karma Kagyu; and Zhang Yudrakpa (ཞང་གཡུ་བྲག་པ་, 1123–1193), who established the Tselpa Kagyu. Pakmodrupa is said to have viewed himself as a servant of all sentient beings and to have lived a life committed to strict morality and service to others. He wrote several works on bodhicitta, including a commentary on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows''<ref>Phakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, ''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa bzhugs pa'i dbu phyogs'', in Gsung 'bum phag mo gru pa rdo rje rgyal po (bris ma), (ga), 27–48, Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG15061_A5D6A7.</ref> and a treatise entitled ''Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva'', not to be confused with Śāntideva's work, although they have the same title in Tibetan. In another text called ''The Great Pearl Garland'' (''སེམས་བསྐྱེད་མུ་ཏིག་ཕྲེང་ཆེན་''), he wrote in praise of bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Other intentions and precepts are like well-cooked food but thoughts and precepts concerning bodhicitta are like the celestial cake with a hundred tastes. The mass of other merits is like a ruler from a castle, while bodhicitta is like the universal monarch ruling over all gods and men. The merit accrued from other virtues is like the light of a firefly, while the merit of bodhicitta is like the blazing disc of the sun.<ref>Pakmodrupa, ''Sems bskyed mu tig phreng chen'', in Gsung 'bum rdo rje rgyal po (N.p: N.p, 1998), 1:571–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23860_764630.</ref>
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Pakmodrupa's eight chief disciples took the teachings further by founding eight subschools of the Pakdru Kagyu. Among them are figures such as Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (འཇིག་རྟེན་མགོན་པོ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1143–1217), who founded the Drikung Kagyu, Lingrepa Pema Dorje (གླིང་རས་པ་པདྨ་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1128–1188), whose disciple Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (གཙང་པ་རྒྱ་རས་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1161–1211) founded the Drukpa Kagyu, and Taklungtangpa Tashi Pal (སྟག་ལུང་ཐང་པ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་དཔལ་, 1142–1209/1210). Jikten Gönpo established Drikung Thil, had a large following, and also wrote many texts on the cultivation of bodhicitta. ''The Experiential Hymns on the Fivefold Mahāmudrā'' (''ཕྱག་རྒྱ་ཆེན་པོ་ལྔ་ལྡན་གྱི་རྟོགས་པའི་མགུར་'') is perhaps the most well-known work. Only five verses, it starts with the following:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If the steed of love and compassion
Does not run for the benefit of others,
It will not be rewarded in the assembly of gods and humans.
Attend, therefore, to the preliminaries.<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེའི་རྟ་ཕོ་ལ། །གཞན་ཕན་གི་དཀྱུས་ཐོག་མ་བཅད་ན། །ཁྲོམ་ལྷ་མིའི་འོར་ཆེ་མི་འབྱུང་བས། །སེམས་སྔོན་འགྲོ་འདི་ལ་ནན་ཏན་མཛོད།།. See Karma Phuntsho, trans., ''Jikten Sumgön's Fivefold Path of Mahāmudrā'' (''Phyag rgya chen po lnga ldan rtogs pa'i mgur''), Buddha-Nature: A Tsadra Foundation Project, recent essays, posted October 2021, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Recent_Essays/Post-50.</ref>
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Like Jikten Gönpo, Tsangpa Gyare, the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu, became a highly influential Kagyu master and spread the teachings on bodhicitta widely. He is said to have sent many waves of students across the Himalayas so that the Drukpa Kagyu teachings could spread across vast distances—as far as a vulture can fly in eighteen days. It has been said in a highly exaggerated claim that half of humanity are followers of the Drukpa Kagyu tradition, half of them paupers, and half of the paupers accomplished saints. The upper Drukpas, went another panegyrical claim, are as many as stars in the sky, the lower Drukpas are as many as the particles of dust on the earth, and the middle Drukpa tradition has 2500 leading hierarchs who are entitled to parasols over their head. No doubt, the teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread widely through the works of Tsangpa Gyare and his followers. Tsangpa Gyare remarked in one of his pieces of advice:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If bodhicitta is not cultivated, all meritorious activities, like an offering of flour to demons will throw one to the currents of worldly concerns.<ref>བྱང་སེམས་རྒྱུད་ལ་མ་སྐྱེས་ན། །བསོད་ནམས་བདུད་ཀྱི་ཕྱེ་གཏོར་འདིས། །ཆོས་བརྒྱད་ཆུ་ལ་བསྐུར་ཉེན་གདའ། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''<i>'</i>Gro mgon rin po che's gsung mgur gyi rim pa'', in 'Gro ba’i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23782_A9B6DF.</ref>
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"If one had compassion like a shepherd," he said, "one would care for both the good and bad."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེ་ལུག་རྫི་འདྲ་ན་བཟང་ངན་མེད་པར་བསྐྱང་སྟེ་མཆི། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''Tsogs chos mno ‘khor ma che ba'', in 'Gro ba'i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 9b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN2232_A2AF3F.</ref>

A leading disciple of Gampopa was Dusum Khyenpa, who established a lineage that became highly influential in Tibetan religion and politics. He was later recognized as the First Karmapa. Dusum Khyenpa founded Tsurphu Monastery in Tibet and had a great following. He taught that Dharma is about benefiting sentient beings and emphasized the importance of loving-kindness and compassion as part of the Mahāyāna path. But it was his successors who excelled in the scholarship on bodhicitta theory and practice. The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (ཀརྨ་པཀྵི་, 1204–1283), mentioned bodhicitta in his writings, but Rangjung Dorje (རང་བྱུང་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1284–1339 ), the Third Karmapa, wrote many important works on ultimate bodhicitta. These included books on the perfection of wisdom, which covered the empty aspect of ultimate bodhicitta, and books on buddha-nature, which covered the luminous aspect of ultimate bodhicitta.

Among the seventeen Karmapas who have become heads of the Kamtsang Kagyu school so far, the Eighth Karmapa, Mikyö Dorje, wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' in which he discusses bodhicitta. He also composed many other short manuals and instructions for bodhicitta practice such as ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang sems kyi khrid'', In Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa: 2004), 19:383–98, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_5E5C5A.</ref> ''Cultivation of Bodhicitta in One Night'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang chub kyi sems sgom tshul zhag gcig ma'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:331–34, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_DE0419.</ref> and ''Instructions for Mind Training''.<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Blo sbyong gi khrid'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:281–96, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_C222BF.</ref> In ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'', he presents guidance on how to generate bodhicitta using a dialogue between Maitreya and Maitrīyogi as the main text. In it, he also gives instructions on how to combine the cultivation of bodhicitta with breathing. Mikyö Dorje also wrote the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka, Cittamātra, and Vajrayāna traditions.

Another major author on bodhicitta belonging to the Kamtshang Kagyu subschool was Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (དཔའ་བོ་གཙུག་ལག་ཕྲེང་བ་, 1504–1564), a historian and commentator on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Besides his commentary on this classical text on bodhicitta, he also authored liturgies for taking the bodhisattva vows for both relative and ultimate bodhicitta and instructions on how to turn both positive and negative life experiences into opportunities for mind training.

The sixteenth century saw another major Kagyu figure belonging to the Drukpa Kagyu subschool. Pema Karpo (པདྨ་དཀར་པོ་, 1527–1592), the Fourth Drukchen of the Drukpa Kagyu school, wrote commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>Pema Karpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'bru 'grel dbu ma'i lam gyi sgron ma'' (Nepal: Shree Gautam Buddha Vihara, 2017), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/a-lamp-for-the-middle-way/.</ref> and ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. He also composed a treatise on the three vows, the second chapter of which deals with the bodhisattva vow and precepts. He also wrote texts related to the lamrim stages of the path to enlightenment and many works on ''mahāmudrā'', which deal with the ultimate form of bodhicitta.

In the nineteenth century, a major Kagyu figure to champion all traditions of Tibetan Buddhist teachings, including the study and practice of bodhicitta, was Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (1813–1899). As a leading promoter of the Rime ecumenical movement in eastern Tibet alongside his teacher and colleague Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892), Kongtrul produced the five great treasuries, including The Treasury of Kagyu Tantras (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད་སྔགས་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Revealed Treasures (རིན་ཆེན་གཏེར་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Instructions (གདམས་ངག་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Knowledge (ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་ཁྱབ་མཛོད་), and The Treasury of Extensive Teachings (རྒྱ་ཆེན་བཀའ་མཛོད་). While the first three are mainly compilations of existing teachings, Kongtrul added many supplements to enrich the collections. In the Treasury of Instructions, he put together the rare and important meditation instructions of all major Tibetan Buddhist transmissions and also composed many instructions and liturgies himself. A good example of this is his composition of the liturgy to take the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka tradition as received via Śāntideva. The two last collections mainly consist of his own encyclopedic writings and include his commentary on Chekawa Yeshe Dorje's ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' and his ''Aspirational Prayer for Mind Training''.

The last great Kagyupa/Nyingmapa promoter of bodhicitta in India in the twentieth century was Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, although he was also more aligned to the Rime ecumenical tradition than a specific sect. Born in North India with deep knowledge of its languages and cultures, and trained in Tibet before Buddhism's decline there, Khunu Rinpoche was uniquely positioned to preserve and transmit bodhicitta teachings during Tibet's takeover by the People's Liberation Army and the subsequent refugee exodus. At such a critical moment, Khunu Rinpoche passed on the profound teachings on bodhicitta to his students, the most eminent among them being the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as the unparalleled paragon of bodhicitta study and practice in modern times. Khunu Rinpoche also composed his very deep and poetic treatise on bodhicitta entitled ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta''.<ref>See Khunu Lama, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, n.d), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ369499.</ref>

Around the same time, another prominent Kagyu master to promote bodhicitta through his writings was Gedun Rinchen (དགེ་འདུན་རིན་ཆེན་, 1926–1997), the sixty-ninth Je Khenpo, or Chief Abbot, of Bhutan. Gedun Rinchen wrote commentaries on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', notes on ''The Way of the Bodisattva'', and several short works on the cultivation of both relative and ultimate bodhicitta. He is perhaps the first Bhutanese author to also write extensively on topics related to bodhicitta, although several other Bhutanese would do so in the twenty-first century. Today, traditional scholarship on bodhicitta among the Kagyu school thrives with an unprecedented number of scholars and masters writing and teaching both in the Himalayan Buddhist areas and in the diaspora.

=== The Sakya School ===
The Sakya school was founded by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102) with the establishment of Sakya center in the Tsang region of Tibet in 1073. In subsequent generations, the school evolved to become renowned for their scholarship and their dedicated practice of the Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on the Path and Result in particular. This was also true with regard to their study and practice of bodhicitta. According to the tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (ས་ཆེན་ཀུན་དགའ་སྙིང་པོ་, 1092–1158), the son of Könchok Gyalpo and the first of the five eminent ancestors of Sakya, is said to have had a vision of Mañjuśrī in which he received the teachings known as ''Parting from the Four Attachments'' (''ཞེན་པ་བཞི་བྲལ་'').<ref>See Ngor pa dpon slob blo gter dbang po, ed., ''Zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Rgyud sde kun btus (glog klad par ma) (Kathmandu: Sachen International, Guru Lama, 2004), 23:727–30, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW27883_DDE525.</ref> The teaching went as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If you are attached to this life, you are not a true spiritual practitioner;
If you are attached to saṃsāra, you have no renunciation;
If you are attached to your own self-interest, you have no bodhicitta;
If there is grasping, you do not have the View.<ref>Rigpa Translations, trans., ''Instruction on Parting from the Four Attachments'', by Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (Lotsawa House, 2011), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/jetsun-drakpa-gyaltsen/parting-four-attachments.</ref>
}}
The third point on parting from the attachment to self-interest underscored the importance of the practice of bodhicitta and compassion in the Sakya spiritual practice. A generation after him, his son Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), who got trained at Sangpu Neutok under the illustrious scholar Chapa Chökyi Senge, carried on the scholarly tradition of Sakya and composed a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel pa'', in ''<i>'</i>Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung'', ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po (Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 68:20–209, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_A992FA.</ref> The younger son, Drakpa Gyaltsen (གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1147–1216), carried on the tradition and composed a summary of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum, reprinted from a set of Derge Parkhang woodblocks (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992-1993), 9:553–91, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_21D2B6.</ref> instructions on ''Parting from the Four Attachments'',<ref>See ''Rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan gyis mdzad pa'i zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Gdams ngag mdzod (Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1979–1981), 6:310–14, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20877_835B23.</ref> a manual for taking the refuge and bodhisattva vows,<ref>See ''Chos spyod rin chen phreng ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:511–46, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_BAE593.</ref> and an exegesis on ''The Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow''.<ref>See Sachen Kunga Nyingpo and Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa gsal bar ston pa shlo ka nyi shu pa'i rnam par bshad pa'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:547–604, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_4967BB.</ref>

The greatest scholar among the five sublime ancestors of Sakya, however, was Ngawang Kunga Gyaltsen, who is popularly known as Sakya Paṇḍita or Sakya Paṇchen (ས་སྐྱ་པཎྜི་ཏ་, 1182–1251). A scholar of exceptional caliber, Sakya Paṇḍita composed many original works, some of which discuss bodhicitta. These include ''Distinguishing the Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་གསུམ་རབ་དབྱེ་''),<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:1–96, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' (''ཐུབ་པའི་དགོངས་པ་རབ་ཏུ་གསལ་བ་''),<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:9–206, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> a liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow, and a collection of scriptural citations to substantiate the points related to bodhicitta.<ref>See ''Dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi cho ga'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:467–503, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_1F51EB and ''Byang chub kyi mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga'i lung sbyor'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:503–24, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_A6BF74.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita bestowed the bodhisattva vow according to the Middle Way tradition and followed this with teachings on ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' so that one's bodhicitta would not decrease but would increase. Yet, it was generally his critical and polemical discourses on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta that often attracted the greatest attention from scholars and readers. For instance, he argued that not all bodhisattva aspiration prayers would come true, for if they did, bodhisattvas would be constantly inflicted by the pain and suffering that they prayed would fall on them. However, he accepted the essential role that bodhicitta played in Buddhist soteriology. "If one mishandles the crux of bodhicitta, other dharma cannot make one fully enlightened,"<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་གནད་འཆུགས་ན། །ཆོས་གཞན་གྱིས་ནི་འཚང་མི་རྒྱ། ། ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:33, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> he argued. Furthermore, he writes,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If one has bodhicitta and skill in means,
Even if one indulges in the five sensory objects,
Such an act becomes an act of great virtue for a bodhisattva.
It is considered as sin by the hearers.<ref>འདོད་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་ལྔར་སྤྱོད་ཀྱང་། །ཐབས་མཁས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ལྡན་ན། །རྒྱལ་སྲས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ཆེན་ཡིན། །ཉན་ཐོས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་སྡིག་པར་གསུངས། ། See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref>
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In his ''Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' and the liturgy on the bodhisattva vow, he presents a brief historical account of the two main Mahāyāna traditions, a clear account of bodhicitta and its types, the ritual for receiving the bodhisattva vow, and the precepts that follow.<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita was succeeded by his nephew Chögyal Pakpa (ཆོས་རྒྱལ་འཕགས་པ་, 1235–1280), who followed his uncle to China and later became the court priest and tutor of Kubilai Khan. Chögyal Pakpa is said to have given the bodhicitta vow to large gatherings of 70,000 people during the Chumik convention in 1270 and to have also administered it to his Mongol disciples in the Yuan court.

The Sakya school, put in place by the five great masters, continued to grow through the works of many great figures on the Tibetan intellectual scene and the many monasteries and centers they founded. In the generation after Chögyal Pakpa, we see the rise of Butön Rinchen Drub (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་, 1290–1364), a Sakya scholar who became the head of Shalu Monastery and was also responsible for the compilation of the first Kangyur and Tengyur canons, today referred to as the Old Narthang Kangyur and Tengyur. Butön left behind a prodigious oeuvre that includes a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa byang chub kyi sems gsal bar byed pa zla ba'i 'od zer'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19:193–614, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_11394D.</ref> a summary of it,<ref>See ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19: 147–92, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_B2DED5.</ref> and a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''.<ref>''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rgya cher bshad pa lung gi snye ma'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy Of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 18:13–740, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_850C4C</ref> He also wrote one of the earliest and elaborate treatises on buddha-nature<ref>See, for example, ''Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 20:1–78, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_9E60DB.</ref> and numerous texts on Vajrayāna, covering ultimate bodhicitta.

An influential contemporary of Butön with a strong connection to the Sakya school was Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361). Initially associated with the Sakya school, Dölpopa undertook Kālacakra practice at Jomonang center, which eventually led him to his exposition of the philosophy of ''zhentong'' (''གཞན་སྟོང་''), or other emptiness. He wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rnam bshad mdo'i don bde blag tu rtogs pa'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon, 1990s?), 5:245–620, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_F64381.</ref> and original works such as ''The Mountain Dharma: Ocean of Definitive Meaning''<ref>See ''Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho zhes bya ba mthar thug thun mong ma yin pa'i man ngag'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 3:191–739, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_CC2A89.</ref> and ''The Fourth Council'',<ref>See ''Bka' bsdu bzhi pa'i don bstan rtsis chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 6:167–204, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_A37792.</ref> which elaborate an understanding of ultimate bodhicitta which is starkly different from the mainstream Sakya position. Dölpopa and his writings, which were carried on by the Jonang school, left behind a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist scholarship and practice.

In the fourteenth century, the Sakya school produced two outstanding scholars who both got trained at Sangpu Neutok. The first was Yaktön Sangye Pal (གཡག་སྟོན་སངས་རྒྱས་དཔལ་, 1350–1414), one of the six scholars known as the Six Ornaments of Tibet who wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Sher phyin mngon rtogs rgyan rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20485.</ref> but did not write any independent work on bodhicitta. The second scholar, Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (1367–1449), in contrast, wrote commentaries on major Indian treatises, including ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>Rongtön Sheja Kunrik, ''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rnam bshad tshig don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 3:3–774, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_96A5D5.</ref> and ''Introduction to the Middle Way''.<ref>''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don rnam nges'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 6:383–752, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_ACD85B.</ref> He also composed many short works on the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta, including a short text containing instructions on how to put ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into practice.<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug sgom rim rin chen rgyan phreng'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 1:508–10, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_876785.</ref>

Scholastic and polemical writings in the Sakya school reached unprecedented heights during the time of Rongtön's students, which included three of the most renowned scholars of their time—Taktsang Sherab Rinchen (སྟག་ཚང་ཤེས་རབ་རིན་ཆེན་, 1405–1477), Śākya Chokden (ཤཱཀྱ་མཆོག་ལྡན་, 1428–1507), and Gorampa Sönam Senge (གོ་རམས་པ་བསོད་ནམས་སེང་གེ་, 1429–1489). Taktsang Sherab Rinchen composed two works on the sciences and philosophical tenet systems and became a vocal critic of Tsongkhapa’s understanding of emptiness but did not write anything significant on bodhicitta. Śākya Chokden wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo dang mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel dang bcas pa'i lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don rgya mtsho'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 3:7–192, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_B4FF1A.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See ''Dbu ma 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don gnad kyi ṭī ka'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 5:291–486, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_D11306.</ref> and on Sakya Paṇḍita's ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'i le'u gsum pa rig 'dzin sdom pa'i skabs kyi 'bel gtam rnam par nges pa legs bshad gser gyi thur ma'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 7:7–244, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_E519EB.</ref> He also wrote a commentary on ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' by Langri Thangpa.<ref>Shākya Chokden, ''Blo sbyong tshig rkang brgyad pa'i rnam bshad don gsum rab tu gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 23:57–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_C4DA34.</ref> An independent thinker, Śākya Chokden introduced a new interpretation of buddha-nature, and his philosophical interpretation often differed from early Sakya masters. Because of this, his colleague Gorampa Sönam Senge, a sharp commentator and debater, became the main authority who established and carried on the Sakya philosophical tradition. Like his teacher Rongtön and his colleague Śākya Chokden, Gorampa wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i dka' ba'i gnas rnam par bshad pa yum don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 6:7–756, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_B6315B.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i dkyus kyi sa bcad pa dang gzhung so so'i dka' ba'i gnas la dpyad pa lta ba ngan sel'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 5:479–758, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_73D3D6.</ref> and also ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Sdom pa gsum gyi rab tu dbye ba'i rnam bshad rgyal ba'i gsung rab kyi dgongs pa gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 9:7–436, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_6EA702.</ref> Gorampa, Śākya Chokden, and Taktsang Sherab Rinchen would become known as Goshāktaksum, a trio of Sakya scholars who were among the harshest critics of Tsongkhapa and his Geluk school of thought.

Another prolific scholar around this time, though not directly related to Sakya, was Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal (བོ་དོང་པཎ་ཆེན་ཕྱོགས་ལས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་, 1376–1451). Chokle Namgyal left behind perhaps the largest collection of writings in Tibet, including commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Dpal de kho na nyid 'dus pa'i rgya mtsho chen po las phar phyin gyi dka' 'grel lung gi snye ma'', in Bo dong phyogs las rnam rgyal gyi gsung 'bum gsar rnyed skor, Par gzhi dang po (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 2:5–386, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD97485_3FDD00.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, Gsung 'bum phyogs las rnam rgyal (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1969–1981), vol. 17, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22103_5D3941.</ref> and an exegetical commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa rab tu gsal ba'', in 'Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung, ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po, Par gzhi dang po (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 73:221–560, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_6A3765.</ref> Scholarship on bodhicitta thrived with the rise of scholasticism from the fourteenth century. The theory of bodhicitta was discussed as the first of the seventy topics covered in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and the practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya tradition took place through the bodhisattva vow and through the instruction on ''Parting from the Four Attachments''. The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya school especially flourished and would culminate in the works of masters such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the Sakya figure who rose to be the leading advocate of the Rime ecumenical movement in the nineteenth century. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo bequeathed an enormous collection of writings that included many dozens of texts on bodhicitta. While he did not write commentaries on the main classical texts as other scholarly Sakya masters did, he composed many works concerning the practice of bodhicitta in the form of practical instructions, liturgies, and historical accounts.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings beyond Asia ==
Although some early cultural transmissions and interactions between Asia and the West occurred in ancient times, the proper transmission of Buddhism, particularly Mahāyāna teachings, to the West has taken place only since the early twentieth century. The general trend of globalization facilitated by the advancement in communication technology and the travel industry, political upheavals such as World War II and the Korean War, and the rise of communism in China, Vietnam, and Tibet all led to the migration of people from Mahāyāna countries in Asia to the West and to the spread of bodhicitta teachings. Western interest in Buddhist cultures was at first largely driven by cultural curiosity and academic interest, often motivated by a colonial agenda. However, this changed by the middle of the twentieth century with the significant growth of serious interest in Eastern spirituality, the introduction of Buddhist Studies in Western universities as part of religious and theological studies, and the rise of Dharma centers for practicing Buddhists.

The initial transmission of Mahāyāna teachings to the West began with the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning of the twentieth century. Figures such as Soyen Shaku (1860–1919) and Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966) brought Zen Buddhism and the Mahāyāna teachings from the Sino-Japanese tradition, while explorer-writers such as Evans Wentz (1878–1965) and Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969) introduced the West to Tibetan Buddhism. These were followed by a rising number of scholars in leading academic institutions, many of whom undertook sustained and in-depth study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the same time, numerous Asian Buddhist teachers from Tibet and East Asia started to establish Dharma centers, particularly in Europe and North America, where people with an interest in Buddhism took up their spiritual practice. Such a diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in general and teachings on bodhicitta in particular was further enhanced by the rising popularity of figures such as the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987).

One way to gauge the spread of the teachings on bodhicitta is to look at the transmission of the main classics on bodhicitta—namely, Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Compendium of Training''. Early translations of these two works, which gained much popularity in India soon after their composition in the eighth century, appeared in Tibetan and Chinese in the ninth and tenth centuries respectively. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' was initially translated into Tibetan by Kawa Paltsek in the eighth century and into Chinese by Tiān Xīzāi (d.1000) in 985 CE. The Tibetan translation went through subsequent revisions at least twice in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by Lotsāwa Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055) and Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) respectively. The text was then translated into Mongolian by Čosgi Odser (ཆོས་ཀྱི་འོད་ཟེར་, fl. 1305–1321) in 1305. ''The Compendium of Training'' was translated into Tibetan by Yeshe De (eighth century) and later revised by Ngok Loden Sherab. It was translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa in the first half of the eleventh century.

In the centuries after their composition, both of these texts appear to have spread quickly beyond North India to places such as Kashmir and Kathmandu. For example, the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project has found forty-one manuscripts related to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', including twelve palm-leaf manuscripts, and the earliest one (located in Kathmandu) dated to 1180 CE. The only existing Sanskrit manuscript of ''The Compendium of Training'', now housed in Cambridge University Library, was also acquired from Kathmandu.

Although these texts attracted much attention in India, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and other traditional Buddhist areas, their transmission to the West occurred only around the beginning of the twentieth century. The first publication of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the Western world took place in Russia in 1889 when Ivan P. Minayev reviewed and published the Sanskrit text using the manuscript brought by Brian Houghton Hodgson from Kathmandu.<ref>I. P. Minayev, "La doctrine du salut dans le Bouddhisme posterieur," ''Zapiski'', no. 4 (1889).</ref> Similarly, ''The Compendium of Training'' was first published through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902 by Cecil Bendall, who used the Sanskrit manuscript obtained by Daniel Wright in 1875 from Kathmandu.<ref>Cecil Bendall, ed., ''Çikshāsamuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhistic Teaching Compiled by Çāntideva Chiefly from Earlier Mahāyāna-Sūtras'' (St Pétersburg: Commissionaires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1902), xxiv.</ref> The first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into a European language was undertaken by Louis de la Vallée Poussin, who translated the text in stages from 1892 onward and completed it in 1907. This was followed by five different translations into French in the twentieth century. Lionel David Barnett produced the first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into English in 1909, although he only did an abridged version. The first complete English translation of the verses appears to have been carried out by Marion Matics.<ref>Marion Leonidas Matics, ''Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The Bodhicaryāvatāra of the Buddhist Poet Śāntideva'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970).</ref> Since then, there have been some seventeen different English translations of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', and writings on this text continue to grow. It is today found in over a dozen European languages. It was also translated into Japanese by Ekai Kawaguchi (1866–1945) and published in 1921, and translations can be found in many other Asian languages.

Śāntideva’s other main work, ''The Compendium of Training'', was edited and published for the first time in the West by Cecil Bendell in 1902. He also started the translation, but it was finished by W. H. D. Rouse and published in 1922. As regards the translation of ''The Compendium of Training'' into other languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930. Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered it into modern Japanese from the Chinese version. The latest and most popular translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' today is the one by the Padmakara Translation Group and that of ''The Compendium of Training'' is the one by Charles Goodman.

Through these academic and religious translations and numerous other writings on bodhicitta, the teachings and practice of bodhicitta have today spread widely in many continents. Yet, the biggest impetus for the promotion of bodhicitta across the world has come from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), an ardent promoter of bodhicitta doctrine and practice. Throughout the decades following the exodus of Tibetans into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lama has tirelessly taught and written about bodhicitta and spread the teachings to large global audiences. Interest in Tibetan Buddhism in general and the bodhicitta teachings has grown rapidly as these teachings, which were previously inaccessible to foreigners, have become easily available.

Moreover, the teachings on bodhicitta and the bodhisattva ideal continue to appeal to modern progressive sensibilities, leading to their adoption and application even beyond religious circles. With influential leaders such as the Dalai Lama promoting these ideas, the rich tradition of bodhicitta—the way of wisdom and compassion—continues to spread in different parts of the world in the twenty-first century in a sustained effort to curb materialism, individualism, egocentricity, aggression, and environmental degradation, which are rampant in the world. This web resource contains extensive materials on bodhicitta in one place, launching a new chapter in the history of bodhicitta teachings. It provides timely support to help students and practitioners easily enhance their knowledge, deepen their understanding, and strengthen their practice.
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Articles/History of Bodhicitta Teachings

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== The Origins of Bodhicitta ==
Tradition would have it that bodhicitta existed since time immemorial, as all buddhas must start their journey by becoming a bodhisattva and one can only do so by cultivating bodhicitta—the desire to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. However, from a historical perspective, the term ''bodhicitta'' and the idea of taking all sentient beings to the state of full enlightenment only emerges with the rise of the Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE. There is no explicit mention of the term ''bodhicitta'' in the Buddhist canon preserved in the Pāli language, which most scholars consider to be the earliest collection of Buddhist scriptures.

One can find in the Pāli canon, particularly in the section on past buddhas and the Jātaka tales, references to the historical Buddha generating the first thoughts to become a buddha in his former lifetimes. A good example is the ascetic Sumedha, one of the previous rebirths of the historical Buddha, taking the vow to seek perfect enlightenment for the first time in the presence of Buddha Dīpaṃkara, who confirms his success in the future through a prediction.<ref>See "Sumedha's Wish" and "The History of Buddha Dīpaṅkara" in ''Chronicles of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhavaṃsa'') under Minor Collections (''Khuddakanikāya''), at suttacentral.net, https://suttacentral.net/bv?view=normal&lang=en. Retrieved on May 5, 2025.</ref> Similarly, we also find the story of the Buddha as the brahmin Jotipāla, who takes the vow once again in the presence of Buddha Kāśyapa and receives a prediction from him that he will one day become a buddha. These stories, along with many others about the Buddha as a bodhisattva and his aim to attain perfect enlightenment, are considered by later Buddhist thinkers to exemplify bodhicitta. No doubt, these accounts in the early canonical works contributed to the development of the concept and practice of bodhicitta in later times.

It is notable, however, that the early Buddhist scriptures portray the commitment to seek the state of perfect enlightenment, or buddhahood, as a privilege reserved for only a select few individuals of high capacity. They do not explicitly mention the wish to pursue enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, nor do they articulate the noble aim of leading all sentient beings to the state of perfect enlightenment. Rather, in these early teachings, the focus is on the pursuit of individual liberation. Although some exceptional beings become fully enlightened buddhas with great compassion for the world, the teachings do not highlight the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta. The compassionate intention to benefit the world becomes more explicit in later times.

The ''Mahāvastu'' (the "Great Event" or "Great Story"), a book from around the second century BCE belonging to the Lokottaravādin school, is perhaps one of the earliest texts to explicitly mention the term ''bodhicitta'' and to present both aspects of bodhicitta: the aim for perfect enlightenment and wish to do so out of compassion for sentient beings.<ref>Jeom-suk Park claims that this appearance of bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' is indeed the first appearance of the term. See Jeom-suk Park, "Bodhicitta and Bodhisattva in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism," ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 51, no. 2 (March 2003): 139.</ref> The verses that mention bodhicitta in the ''Mahāvastu'' (MVU) read as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na dhyānahānir bhavate kadācit /
na bodhicittaṃ jahate kadācit // (MVU 2.382)<ref>See Emmanuel Fauré, ed., ''Mahāvastu-avādana'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 2.382, 2.392, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. The #2 here stands for part 2 of the ''Mahāvastu'' as it has been arranged on GRETIL.</ref>

Never is there any falling off in meditation, and never
does he abandon the thought of enlightenment.<ref>See J. J. Jones, trans., ''The Mahāvastu'' (London: Luzac, 1952), 2:344.</ref>
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=na bodhicittaṃ vijahati so kadācit /
na khaṇḍaśīlo bhavati asaṃvṛto vā // (MVU 2.392)

Never does he give up the thought of enlightenment.
He never becomes corrupt of morals nor dissolute.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 2:351, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>
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The accounts of the previous lives of the historical Buddha and of Buddha Maitreya (the future Buddha) in the ''Mahāvastu'' chronicle how, for example, during the time of Buddha Suprabhāsa, the historical Buddha as the monk Abhiya and Maitreya as King Vairocana made the aspiration to reach the state of perfect enlightenment and did so out of compassion to benefit the world. Such an aspiration to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of the world gradually evolved into the concept of bodhicitta with the emergence of Mahāyāna teachings around 100 BCE.
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|quote-text=yasmiṃ samaye satvā bhavensuḥ alenā atrāṇā aśaraṇā aparāyaṇā utsadalolā utsadadoṣā utsadamohā akuśalān dharmā samādāya vartensuḥ yobhūyena ca apāyapratipūrakā bhavensu tasmiṃ kāle tasmiṃ samaye aham anuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbudhyehaṃ // taṃ bhaveyaṃ bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukaṃpāya mahato janakāyasyārthāya hitāya sukhāya devānāṃ ca manuṣyāṇāṃ ca // (MVU 1.61)<ref>Fauré, ''Mahāvastu'', 1.161, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_mahAvastu-avAdana.htm.</ref>

When beings come to be without refuge, support, protection, shelter, and succour, when they become characterized by fickleness, malice, and folly, when they live in accordance with wrong standards of conduct and generally go to crowd the worlds of woe, then may I awake to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. May I do so for the benefit and welfare of mankind, out of compassion for the world, for the sake of the multitude, for the good of devas and men.<ref>Jones, ''Mahāvastu'', 1:50.</ref>
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The earliest Mahāyāna texts to discuss bodhicitta are said to be ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'' (''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'')<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_aSTAdazasAhasrikA-prajJApAramitA55-82.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>’</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fols. 1b1–286a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0012.</ref> and ''The Verses that Summarize the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'').<ref>See Klaus Wille, ed., ''Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), chapter 1, 3, 5, and 8. See Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon Input Project, ''Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'' (Göttingen: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages, 2020), 1.5, 5.5-8, https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/corpustei/transformations/html/sa_ratnaguNasaMcayagAthA.htm. Retrieved on May 7, 2025. See also, ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasañcayagāthā'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fols. 1b1-19b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0013.</ref> These texts date to around 100 BCE and both contain the term ''bodhicitta'' and promote the concept of seeking enlightenment out of compassion and love for sentient beings.<ref>See ''Prajñāpāramitāratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā'', 16.5 (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa sdud pa tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Kangyur D13, sher phyin, vol. 34, ka, fol. 10a and ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 16b.</ref> The term ''bodhicitta'' appears at the beginning of ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', when Subhūti, through the blessings of the Buddha, submits to the Buddha that a bodhisattva "should train to not have pride in having bodhicitta, for such mind is not mind, but mind is by nature luminous."<ref>འདི་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་དེས་ཀྱང་རློམ་སེམས་སུ་མི་བགྱིད་པ་དེ་ལྟར་བསླབ་པར་བགྱིའོ། །དེ་ཅིའི་སླད་དུ་ཞེ་ན། འདི་ལྟར་སེམས་དེ་ནི་སེམས་མ་མཆིས་པ་སྟེ། སེམས་རང་བཞིན་ནི་འོད་གསལ་བ་ལགས་སོ།། ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa''), in Derge Kangyur D12, brgyad stong, vol. 33, ka, fol. 3a.</ref>

[[File:Text sample 1 for history of bodhicitta.jpg|900px|class=w-100 h-auto my-4 border rounded|]]

Similarly, in another passage from this same text, which Gareth Sparham calls the "Origin-Passage,"<ref>Gareth Sparham, "Indian Altruism: A Study of the Terms ''bodhicitta'' and ''cittotpāda''," ''Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15, no. 2 (1992): 224–42.</ref> Subhūti advises Śāriputra that a bodhisattva should not think of an action as hardship because one cannot serve the multitude of sentient beings with such a thought.<ref>See ''Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra'', fol. 16b. See Edward Conze, T''he Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and Its Verse Summary'' (Bolinas, CA: Four Seasons Foundation, 1975), 93.</ref> Only with the feeling of joy and love toward sentient beings, as though they were one’s father, mother, brother, or sister, will one be able to work for countless sentient beings and cultivate the intention to take all of these beings out of suffering for all times, just as one wishes to take oneself out of suffering for all times.

What, then, could have led to the development of such a noble and high ideal as bodhicitta? Dorji Wangchuk, in his authoritative work on bodhicitta entitled ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study on the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'', speculates that the rise of the bodhicitta concept may have been "driven by a psychological need of the Buddhists to compensate for the loss of the historical Buddha."<ref>See Dorji Wangchuk, ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 89.</ref> After the Buddha’s passing, some of his followers may have sought a substitute for the historical Buddha beyond the corpus of teachings and the Saṅgha community, who, as custodians of the Vinaya discipline that the Buddha designated as his representative, were entrusted with preserving his legacy after his departure. This may have been more common among those who chose to follow a hermetic and reclusive life outside the monastic institutions or sought a different understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and an alternative spiritual approach to what the mainstream monastic establishment offered. The Mahāyāna system is said to have emerged as a result of such a tendency,<ref>See Paul Williams, ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations'' (London: Routledge, 2009).</ref> and it is likely that the need for a present buddha figure was strong among such people. In order to have a buddha, one must have a bodhisattva who aspires to become a buddha, and for that one needs to have the resolve or motivation to become a buddha. Thus, the concept of bodhicitta.

Gombrich and Wangchuk also argue that the Buddhist scriptures present the ultimate truth as being eternal and unchanging.<ref>Wangchuk, ''Resolve'', 78. Richard Gombrich, ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo'' (London: Routledge, 2006), 121.</ref> Because this truth remains immanent and eternal, individuals who achieve such realization emerge periodically throughout history. This understanding opens the possibility for other persons to attain the same enlightenment that the historical Buddha achieved. Thus, we see the emergence of a plurality of buddhas in early Buddhist teachings, which present six and twenty-four past buddhas as well as future buddhas such as Maitreya. With the rise of Mahāyāna, the pantheon of buddhas increases, and not only are there numerous past and future buddhas, one sees the idea of numerous present buddhas dwelling in different buddha realms situated in the vast expanse of the new Mahāyāna cosmology. With numerous buddhas as examples, cultivating bodhicitta to achieve buddhahood becomes a central theme.

Bodhicitta, as some scholars have argued, was also an expansion and improvement on the concept of ''prathamacitta'', or the initial resolve made by the Buddha to seek perfect enlightenment. This resolve is also presented as ''praṇidhāna'' (Pāli: ''paṇidhāna''), or the earnest aspiration to attain enlightenment. It is also thought to be an enhanced elucidation of ''adhyāśaya'' (Pāli: ''ajjhāsaya''), or the noble intention to earnestly seek enlightenment or benefit others. Some scholars considered ''adhyāśaya'' to be an abbreviation of ''anuttarāyāṃ samyaksambodhau cittam utpādayati'', or the generation of the thought of the unsurpassed perfect buddhahood. Many early Mahāyāna sources also contain the term ''cittotpāda''—the cultivation of the mind—which refers to the generation of the intention to seek perfect enlightenment. In later works, the terms ''bodhicitta'', ''cittotpāda'', and ''bodhicittotpāda'' came to be used synonymously, although they may have had different referents and connotations in the early period of Mahāyāna.

Whatever the main basis of the technical term ''bodhicitta'', the topic of bodhicitta was repeated and further elaborated in other sūtras belonging to the perfection of wisdom class and numerous other Mahāyāna sūtras that emerged in the subsequent centuries. The main sūtras containing the full-blown teachings on bodhicitta include ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra'') in the ''Avataṃsaka'' collection, ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''), ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' (''Sāgaramatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), ''The Questions of Ugraḥ Sūtra'' (''Ugraparipṛcchāsūtra''), ''The Questions of Vīradatta'' (''Vīradattagṛhapatiparipṛcchā''), ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'' (''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''), and ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'' (''Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra''), to mention a few. In these sūtras, we see the development of the concept of bodhicitta along with the notions of compassion and wisdom. In many sources, such as ''The Questions of Sāgaramati'' and ''The Basket of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisatvapiṭaka''), bodhicitta also refers to the ultimate nature of things or the luminous nature of the mind, which Wangchuk categorizes as ontological bodhicitta.

Besides the numerous canonical Mahāyāna sūtras that discuss and promote bodhicitta, we also see the rise of commentarial literature which deals with the theory and practice of bodhicitta. The foremost champion of the Mahāyāna teachings that included the concept of bodhicitta was Nāgārjuna, who lived roughly between 150 to 250 CE. In his ''Praise of the Diamond Mind'' (''Cittavajrastava'') and ''Praise of Dharmadhātu'' (''Dharmadhātustava''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Cittavajrastava'' (''Sems kyi rdo rje bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1121, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 69b4–70a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1121, and ''Dharmadhātustava'' (''Chos kyi dbyings su bstod pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1118, bstod tshogs, vol. 1, ka, fols. 1.63b5–67b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1118.</ref> Nāgārjuna uses the term ''bodhicitta'' to refer to the nature of mind and ultimate reality. However, in ''The Commentary on Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittavivaraṇa''), which is also attributed to Nāgārjuna, he presents bodhicitta as "the thought motivated by great compassion."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེས་བརླན་པའི་སེམས་ཀྱིས་ནི། །འབད་པས་བསྒོམ་པར་བྱ་བ་ཡིན། ། Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittavivaraṇa'' (''Byang chub sems kyi 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D1800, rgyud, vol. 35, ngi, fol. 38b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_1800.</ref> This, in later times, came to be called ''relative bodhicitta''. In his ''Compendium of Sūtras'' (''Sūtrasamuccaya''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Sūtrasamuccaya'' (''Mdo kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3934, dbu ma, vol. 110, ki, fols. 141b1–215a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3934.</ref> Nāgārjuna presents numerous citations from sūtras to illustrate the rarity and importance of many aspects of Mahāyāna practice, including the supreme thought of awakening, or bodhicitta. Another text on how to take the vow of bodhicitta entitled ''The Ritual for Generating Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādavidhi''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Bodhicittotpādavidhi'' (''Byang chub tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga''), in Derge Tengyur D3966, dbu ma, vol. 112, gi, fols. 237a4–239a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3966.</ref> which contains some detail on the bodhisattva aspirations, is also attributed to Nāgārjuna. The Chinese tradition also ascribes to Nāgārjuna a text called ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'' (''Jingangding yuqie zhongfa anouduoluo sanmiao sanputi xin lun''),<ref>For an English translation of this text, see Minoru Kiyota, trans., "The Bodhicitta Śāstra," in ''Esoteric Texts'' (Moraga, CA: BDK America, 2015), 103–29.</ref> a tantric text which contains the concept of bodhicitta both as the altruistic mind to take all beings to perfect enlightenment and as the ultimate nature of the mind, or buddha-nature. There is no Sanskrit or Tibetan version of this text.

However, the text attributed to Nāgārjuna which explicitly discusses bodhicitta is his discourse to his royal disciple, claimed to be a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty who ruled in the Deccan plateau in the second century. In fact, Nāgārjuna wrote two homilies, but his ''Epistle to a Friend'' (''suhṛllekhaḥ''),<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''suhṛllekhaḥ'' (''bshes pa'i spring yig''), in Derge Tengyur D4182,spring yig, vol. 173, nge, fols. 40b4–46b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4182.</ref> does not discuss bodhicitta as does his other work, ''The Precious Garland'' (''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'').<ref>Nāgārjuna, ''Rājaparikathāratnavāli'' (''Rgyal po la gtam du bya ba rin chen phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D4158, spring yig, vol. 172, ge, 115a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4158.</ref> This work discusses bodhicitta, the bodhisattva practices, the stages on the bodhisattva path, and the bodhisattva goal.

In addition to these texts, the Tibetan Tengyur also contains several aspirational prayers for bodhisattva practice that are attributed to Nāgārjuna. Nāgārjuna’s teachings on bodhicitta, which tradition claims he received from Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom, was passed down mainly through the adherents of the Middle Way school that he initiated. This tradition came to be known as the Profound View tradition and was espoused and propagated by many Buddhist masters from famous universities such as Nālandā and Vikramaśīla.

Another famous lineage of bodhicitta teachings known as the Vast Conduct tradition was passed down from Asaṅga (fourth century), who is said to have received the teachings from Maitreya, the future Buddha. According to this tradition, Asaṅga propitiated Maitreya for twelve long years without receiving a vision of Maitreya, even in a dream. Disappointed, Asaṅga gives up the practice of propitiation and leaves his hermitage when he encounters a wretched bitch in agony as her rotting hind is being consumed by maggots. Out of intense compassion, Asaṅga feeds a bit of his own flesh to the dog and uses his tongue to take out the maggots. Disgusted, he does so with closed eyes, but his tongue touches the ground instead of the dog, and Lo, as he opens his eyes, he sees before him Maitreya with his sublime aura. "You have no compassion," Asaṅga complains to Maitreya for not even showing up in his dream, although he worshiped Maitreya for a dozen years. Maitreya tells Asaṅga that he has been near Asaṅga all along but Asaṅga could not see him. Having removed some karmic obscurations after a long retreat, Asaṅga could see Maitreya as a wretched dog. Then, as compassion for the dog stirred within him, Asaṅga removed the obscurations in his mind, making him able to see the divine figure of Maitreya. Maitreya asked Asaṅga to carry him on his shoulder and ask people what they could see. Most people in the town saw nothing, but an old woman saw him carrying a miserable bitch. Subsequently, Maitreya is said to have taken Asaṅga miraculously to Tuṣita Heaven and to have given him the teachings on Maitreya's five works. The three longer treatises of these five works—namely, ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' (''Abhisamayālaṃkāra''), ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), and ''The Ultimate Continuum of Mahāyāna'' (''Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra'')—varyingly discuss the concept of bodhicitta as an altruistic thought of enlightenment or the nature of one's mind.

In ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', bodhicitta is discussed as the first of the seventy topics related to the Buddhist ground, path, and fruition. We find in this book a very clear definition of bodhicitta, although it uses the term ''cittotpāda''.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=''Cittotpāda'' is the wish to attain the perfect full enlightenment for the sake of others.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་གཞན་དོན་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་རྫོགས་པའི་བྱང་ཆུབ་འདོད། ། Maitreya, ''Abhisamayālaṃkāra'' (''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi tshigs su bcad pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3786, vol. 80, sher phyin, ka, fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3786.</ref>
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This verse remains the most concise and popular definition of bodhicitta. The text also breaks down bodhicitta into twenty-two types using similes and aligns them to the progression of the bodhisattva path. This same concept is further elaborated in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''), in which a whole chapter is dedicated to discussing bodhicitta.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshigs le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, vol. 123, sems tsam, phi, fols. 1a1–39a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref> These two texts by Maitreya and the commentaries on them contain the most detailed theoretical discussions on bodhicitta. In ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', we find not only discussions on relative bodhicitta (i.e., the altruistic thought of enlightenment) but also on ultimate bodhicitta, which is the pristine wisdom discerning the ultimate nature of things.

Asaṅga elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta through his own ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi''), which is a part of his larger work entitled ''The Stages of Yoga Practice'' (''Yogācārabhūmi''). In this work, he points out that bodhicitta has two specific objects.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Therefore, the cultivation of the mind [of enlightenment] aims at enlightenment and also at the welfare of sentient beings.<ref>Asaṅga, ''Yogācārabhūmaubodhisattvabhūmiḥ'' (''Rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa las byang chub sems dpa'i sa''), in Derge Tengyur D4037, vol. 129, sems tsam, wi, fol. 7b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4037.</ref>
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It is clear from this statement that Asaṅga is commenting on the definition of bodhicitta provided by Maitreya in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and also in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras''. Both Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'' and Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' also present the causes and conditions for cultivating bodhicitta. The latter became the main source for the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow in the Vast Conduct tradition. Passed down through Asaṅga, this line of transmission for taking the bodhisattva vow became frequently, though not exclusively, associated with the Mind Only/Yoga Practice school of Mahāyāna. The tradition later became known as the Vast Conduct tradition and was propagated by some of the eminent teachers of bodhicitta.

Besides Nāgārjuna and Asaṅga, the Tibetan tradition also includes Aśvaghoṣa among the early proponents of bodhicitta. Aśvaghoṣa, who is generally believed to have lived sometime within the first two centuries of the common era, was an acclaimed Buddhist poet, dramatist, and the author of poetic works such as ''The Acts of the Buddha'' (''Buddhacarita''), ''Beautiful Nanda'' (''Saundarananda''), and ''The Story of Śāriputra'' (''Śāriputraprakaraṇa''). The Chinese tradition ascribes ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'' (''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra'', ''Dasheng qixin lun'') to Aśvaghoṣa, although modern scholars contest this attribution. The Tibetan Tengyur canon contains two works on relative and ultimate bodhicitta that are considered to be by Aśvaghoṣa,<ref>Aśvaghoṣa, ''Saṃvṛtibodhicittabhāvanopadeśavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Kun rdzob byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge pad+ma spungs pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3911, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 13b4–15a6, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3911, and ''Paramārthabodhicittabhāvanākramavarṇasaṃgraha'' (''Don dam pa byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa'i yi ge rin po che'i sgron ma zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3912, vol. 110, dbu ma, ki, fols. 15a6–16b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3912.</ref> but there is no known record of the transmission of teachings on bodhicitta from Aśvaghoṣa.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings in India and Beyond ==
It is not clear when the names given to the two traditions of Mahāyāna teachings—the Vast Conduct tradition and the Profound View tradition—were introduced, and the names appear to have undergone different phases. However, written records clearly point to the actual teachings on bodhicitta being passed down through generations of Nāgārjuna's and Asaṅga's followers. For the Profound View school, after Nāgārjuna, his disciple Āryadeva promoted bodhicitta in his writings, particularly in ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yogic Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'').<ref>Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'' (''Bstan bcos bzhi brgya pa zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3846, vol. 97, dbu ma, tsha, fols. 1a1–18a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> "The cultivation of the initial thought of enlightenment," he claimed, "outshines even the merit which can make all beings on earth universal monarchs."<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ་སེམས་དང་པོ། །ས་སྟེངས་སྐྱེ་བོ་ཐམས་ཅད་ནི། །འཁོར་ལོས་སྒྱུར་བ་ཉིད་འགྱུར་བ། །དེ་དག་བསོད་ནམས་ལས་ཁྱད་འཕགས། ། Āryadeva, ''Catuḥśatakaśāstranāmakārikā'', fol. 6a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3846.</ref> Similarly, Bhāvaviveka (ca. 500–570 CE) composed his ''Verses on the Heart of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā''), devoting the opening chapter to the topic of bodhicitta. In it he writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Bodhicitta is the seed of buddhas
Adorned with loving-kindness,
Compassion and knowledge.
The wise shall not abandon it.<ref>བྱམས་པ་དང་ནི་སྙིང་རྗེ་དང་། །ཤེས་པ་ཆེན་པོས་བརྒྱན་པ་ཡི། །སངས་རྒྱས་ས་བོན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Bhāvaviveka, ''Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā'' (''Dbu ma'i snying po'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3855, vol. 98, dbu ma, dza, fols. 2a–2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3855.</ref>
}}
Candrakīrti, the author of ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''),<ref>Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, vol. 102, dbu ma, 'a, fols. 201b1–219a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> elaborated the theory and practice of bodhicitta in the context of the Mahāyāna path, particularly as understood in the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna. Although Candrakīrti had issues with Bhāvaviveka on the interpretation of Nāgārjuna’s logical procedures to establish the ultimate truth, they shared the same zest for underscoring the importance of bodhicitta on the bodhisattva path to perfect enlightenment. Candrakīrti organized his famous work using the ten stages of the bodhisattva path and the different levels of bodhicitta. Right at the outset of the work, he declares that bodhicitta, compassion, and the understanding of nonduality are the causes of bodhisattvas.

The most influential champion of bodhicitta teachings in India, however, was undoubtedly Śāntideva, the author of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'')<ref>Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fols. 1a1–40a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> and ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya'').<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 3a2–194b52, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. See also the verse summary: ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 1a1–3a2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref> Śāntideva probably lived around the beginning of the eighth century CE and was likely born in North India, although we have no evidence or records from his time. Most of what we know about him comes from accounts of his life written long after his time by faithful followers. Like the Buddha, he is said to have been born as a prince in North India but to have renounced his kingdom to pursue a spiritual career through the guidance of his tutelary deity Mañjuśrī, the buddha of wisdom. Śāntideva is said to have reached a high level of erudition and spiritual enlightenment through Mañjuśrī’s blessings, although, outwardly, he appeared as a lazy monk, indulging in eating, sleeping, and relieving himself, thus earning him the nickname Busuku.

As the story goes, it was to mock his indolence and to shame him that his peers persuaded Śāntideva to give a public sermon. Śāntideva agreed and is said to have miraculously climbed on the unreasonably high throne they purposely set up to mock him. Śāntideva then asked the congregation whether they wanted an exposition of a text that already existed or something new. They asked for a new teaching, resulting in Śāntideva's delivery of the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'', or ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva is said to have levitated into the sky as he recited the verse "When existence and nonexistence do not remain before the mind, as there is no other aspect, the mind comes to rest without any grasping."<ref>གང་ཚེ་དངོས་དང་དངོས་མེད་དག ། བློ་ཡི་མདུན་ན་མི་གནས་པ། །དེ་ཚེ་རྣམ་པ་གཞན་མེད་པས། །དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་རབ་ཏུ་ཞི། ། Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 32a.4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref> He rose higher and higher until he disappeared, his voice still being heard. The disappearance into sky could be understood as an allegory for the highest experience of transcendence and emptiness of all conceptual thoughts in Śāntideva’s philosophical system. However, an old manuscript recently discovered in Drepung Monastery states that Śāntideva’s reputation soared after his recitation, resulting in much veneration and offering. And Śāntideva is said to have left Nālandā to avoid the distraction entailed by such attention.<ref>Anonymous, ''Spyod 'jug gi bsdus don dang slob dpon zhi ba lha'i lo rgyus'', in Bka' gdams gsung 'bum phyogs bsgrigs thengs gsum pa, Par gzhi dang po (Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009), 6:9–14, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD153536_DD71AE.</ref> Thus, Śāntideva's miraculous disappearance into the sky likely represents a later mythological embellishment of the actual circumstances surrounding his departure.

Whatever the case may be of its origins, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' has arguably become the most influential Buddhist work in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition on bodhicitta. In this work, Śāntideva lays out the practice of bodhicitta in ten chapters, making bold claims such as:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Those who wish to crush the many sorrows of existence,
Who wish to quell the pain of living beings,
Who wish to have experience of a myriad joys
Should never turn away from bodhichitta. (1.8)<ref>སྲིད་པའི་སྡུག་བསྔལ་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་གཞོམ་འདོད་ཅིང་། །སེམས་ཅན་མི་བདེ་བསལ་བར་འདོད་པ་དང་། །བདེ་མང་བརྒྱ་ཕྲག་སྤྱོད་པར་འདོད་པས་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྟག་ཏུ་གཏང་མི་བྱ། ། This translation belongs to the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 32. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 2a.4–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Since its propagation in the eighth century, ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', combining highly inspirational exhortations and incisive philosophical arguments in an evocative poetic language, appears to have become the ''locus classicus'' for bodhicitta study and practice, used and cited by many writers after its appearance. It was Śāntideva who also explicitly presented the meditation on equality between self and others and exchange between self and others as a way to cultivate bodhicitta, as illustrated by the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Do not be downcast, but marshal all your powers;
Make an effort; be the master of yourself!
Practice the equality of self and other;
Practice the exchange of self and other. (7.16)<ref>སྒྱིད་ལུག་མེད་པར་དཔུང་ཚོགས་དང་། །ལྷུར་བླང་བདག་ཉིད་དབང་བྱ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་མཉམ་པ་དང་། །བདག་དང་གཞན་དུ་བརྗེ་བར་བགྱི། ། This translation is by the Padmakara Translation Group. See Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''The Way of the Bodhisattva: A Translation of the Bodhicharyāvatāra'', by Śāntideva, rev. ed. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2006), 99. For the Tibetan text, see Śāntideva, ''Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3871, vol. 105, dbu ma, la, fol. 20b.5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3871.</ref>
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Traditional Tibetan scholars claimed that over a hundred commentaries were written on Śāntideva’s famous work, but there are only twelve Indian commentaries on it available today. They include works by Prajñākaramati, Kṛṣṇapaṇḍita, Kalyāṇadeva, Vairocanarakṣita, Vinītadeva, Vibhūticandra, Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, and Atiśa.

While ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' is an original work by Śantideva written in poetic verse, his other major work, ''The Compendium of Training'', is an anthology of citations of passages from sūtras interspersed with his own words. The two works most likely developed simultaneously in an iterative process, the latter being a compilation of sources for the former in verse. ''The Compendium of Training'' was condensed into a shorter verse summary, the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'', the gist of which is presented by the following verses.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions.
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them.<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་སྡོམ་པ་ནི། །རྒྱས་པར་ཐེག་པ་ཆེ་ལས་འབྱུང་། །གང་གིས་ལྟུང་བར་མི་འགྱུར་བའི། །གནད་ཀྱི་གནས་རྣམས་འདིར་རིག་བྱ། །བདག་གི་ལུས་དང་ལོངས་སྤྱོད་དང་། །དགེ་བ་དུས་གསུམ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས། །སེམས་ཅན་ཀུན་ལ་བཏང་བ་དང་། །དེ་བསྲུང་དག་པ་སྤེལ་བའོ། These are verses 3 and 4 of the ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā''. For the Tibetan text, see ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 1b.3–5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
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Despite being an important source for bodhisattva practice, there are only two commentarial works on ''The Compendium of Training''. One is an exegesis by Vairocanarakṣita of Vikramaśīla, who most likely lived in the eleventh century, and the other is a cryptic and allegorical explanation of the content of the text for practice by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa.

The study and practice of bodhicitta within the Profound View tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism reached unprecedented heights following the eighth century, largely through the contributions of Śāntideva. In addition to the masters who commented on Śāntideva’s works mentioned above, there were other masters such as Mañjuśrīmitra, Jñānagarbha, Jetāri, Puṇyaśrī, Dhanaśrī, Vimalamitra, Śāntarakṣita, and Śāntarakṣita's disciple Kamalaśīla, who took up the scholarship and practice on bodhicitta. Among them, Mañjuśrīmitra and Jñānagarbha focused on the exposition of ultimate bodhicitta, which discerns the ultimate reality of emptiness, while Jetāri wrote a manual for taking the bodhisattva vow and a practice manual for beginners. In his treatise entitled ''Presenting Twelve Points on the Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa''), Mañjuśrīmitra argues that bodhicitta is the mother of all buddhas, the basis of all disciplines, the foundation of all merit, the source of all enlightened qualities, the basis of liberation, and the supreme path leading to enlightenment.<ref>See ''Bodhicittabhāvāṛthadvadaśanirdeśa'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa don bcu gnyis bstan pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2578, vol. 65, rgyud, ngu, fols. 44b4–59a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2578.</ref> However, the most prolific Indian author on bodhicitta belonging to the Middle Way school in the first millennium after Śāntideva was Kamalaśīla. He wrote his trilogy on ''The Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama'') in which he presented the gradual process of the bodhisattva path. He and his teacher Śāntarakṣita, both of whom visited Tibet in the second half of the eighth century, and Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, who traveled to Tibet in the middle of the eleventh century, were the leading doyens who transmitted the teachings on bodhicitta to Tibet.

As for the Vast Conduct tradition, which is supposed to have come down from Maitreya and the pioneer advocate Asaṅga, it continued through Vasubandhu, the younger brother of Asaṅga, who initially followed a non-Mahāyāna school and was critical of Asaṅga's teachings, but later embraced the Mahāyāna school of Mind Only. Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Asaṅga's ''The Compendium of Mahāyāna'' (''Mahāyānasaṃgraha''), and ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Aspiration to Good Actions'' (''Āryabhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja''). Additionally, a work entitled ''Treatise on the Generation of Bodhicitta'' (''Bodhicittotpādaśāstra'') is attributed to him. Other commentators and masters who continued the teachings on bodhicitta in this line include Vasubandhu's students Sthiramati, Dignāga, and Guṇaprabha, who wrote various commentaries. They were followed by Jinaputra, Jñānaśrī, Niḥsvabhāvatā, Parahitabhadra, and Sāgaramegha, whose works are included in the Tibetan Tengyur canon. A prominent master of this line was the householder Candragomin,<ref>While there is no complete scholarly consensus, the majority of modern scholarship seems to place Candragomin in either the fifth–sixth centuries CE (the earlier estimate) or more commonly in the seventh century CE (approximately 600–650 CE, with the latter being the more widely accepted timeframe among contemporary scholars.</ref> who authored a treatise called ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'')<ref>See ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4081, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 166b1–167a5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4081.</ref> and is said to have challenged Candrakīrti in debate. Śāntarakṣita and Bodhibhadra wrote commentaries on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses''.<ref>See ''Saṃvaraviṃśakavṛtti'' (''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4082, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 167a6–184b3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4082, and ''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśakapañjikā'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa nyi shu pa'i dka' 'grel''), in Derge Tengyur D4083, vol. 138, sems tsam, hi, fols. 184b3–217b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4083.</ref> The teachings and instructions in this tradition were passed down to Atiśa mainly by Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa in the tenth century.

While the teachings on bodhicitta spread through these two Mahāyāna lineages, Mahāyāna Buddhism also saw the rise of yet another mode of practice and transmission. This was the emergence of what came to be called Vajrayāna or tantric Buddhism, as the system was mainly based on a body of literature called tantras. Purported to be the words of the Buddha just like the Mahāyāna sūtras, these tantras presented a path to enlightenment that included a wide range of mental, verbal, and embodied tools, as well as radical techniques. Focused on the unraveling of the innate mind of enlightenment, it adopted a syncretic approach, using a great number of non-Buddhist rituals and elements infused with Buddhist philosophies and values to bring about an expedient internal transformation. The tantric masters and texts underscored the importance of bodhicitta as an indispensable component of the Vajrayāna path. They promoted the altruistic aspect of bodhicitta as an intention to seek buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings but championed the understanding of bodhicitta as the realization of the innate nature of the mind and existence. We find also in the Vajrayāna teachings the presentation of symbolic and embodied forms of bodhicitta, which Dorji Wangchuk categorizes as psycho-physiological and semeiological bodhicitta. These esoteric Vajrayāna teachings on bodhicitta flourished in India toward the end of the first millennium and the beginning of the second millennium, when it also started to spread to Tibet.

A couple centuries after their emergence in India, the teachings on bodhicitta began to spread beyond India. The teachings first traveled to Central Asia and from there to China. ''The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines'', for instance, was translated by Lokakṣema in 179 BCE. This was followed by the translation of many other sūtras and commentaries by translators such as Paramārtha, Dharmarakṣa, Kumārajīva, Buddhabhadra, and Dharmakṣema in the subsequent centuries. These included the main sūtras containing teachings on bodhicitta such as ''The Flower Ornament Sūtra'' (''Avataṃsakasūtra''), ''The Lotus Sūtra'', ''The Sūtra of the Great Parinirvāṇa'', ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'', ''The Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith'', ''The Treatise on Bodhicitta'', and the other versions of the perfection of wisdom sūtras. From the accounts of Āryadeva and Dharmakīrti of Suvarṇadvīpa, we can also surmise that the teachings on bodhicitta spread to Ceylon and southeastern parts of Asia.

== The Transmission of Bodhicitta Teachings to Tibet ==
Tibetan historians claim that some Buddhist sūtras, such as ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' (དཔང་སྐོང་ཕྱག་བརྒྱ་པ་ཞེས་བྱ་བ།)<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 1b1–5b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267. No Sanskrit or Chinese versions of this sūtra are known to exist.</ref> and ''The Basket's Display'' (''Karaṇḍavyūhasūtra''),<ref>''Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa za ma tog bkod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur, D116, vol. 51, mdo sde, pa, fols. 200a3–247b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0116.</ref> reached Tibet during the reign of the eighth Yarlung king, Lha Thothori, sometime in the fifth century. Although no one in Tibet understood the texts at that time, they contained teachings on altruism and the bodhisattva path. While ''The Basket's Display'' mainly focuses on the virtues of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion, and his mantra, ''oṃ maṇi padme huṃ'', ''Calling Witness with a Hundred Prostrations'' contains homages to buddhas, the twelve sets of the Buddha's teachings, and bodhisattvas. It also explicitly mentions bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=I, by the name . . . from now on until I reach the heart of enlightenment, shall cultivate the thought of enlightenment. I shall never let go of the thought of enlightenment. May I never be separated from the sublime virtuous friend.<ref>''Dpang skong phyag brgya pa zhes bya ba'', in Derge Kangyur D267, vol. 68, mdo sde, ya, 5a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0267.</ref>
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The Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on bodhicitta in particular may have spread to Tibet in some form in the seventh century during the reign of the thirty-second Yarlung monarch Songtsen Gampo. During this time Songtsen Gampo took two Buddhist brides—one from Tang China and another from the Kathmandu Valley—and also sent his minister Thönmi Sambhoṭa to India to learn Sanskrit. While we see the general introduction of the Buddhist system at this time, there are no specific records of texts related to bodhicitta having been translated or taught during this period, although later records such as the ''Maṇi Kabum'' would have us believe that teachings on compassion and bodhicitta were promulgated. Tibetan Buddhists also believe that the study and practice of bodhicitta and compassion formed a fundamental part of Songtsen Gampo’s promotion of the Buddhist religion, as he was himself considered an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, the buddha of compassion.

Historical records clearly point to the dissemination of teachings on bodhicitta in Tibet in the eighth century during the reign of Trisong Detsen, the thirty-seventh king of the Yarlung dynasty. Besides inviting to Tibet numerous Buddhist scholars and masters such as Śāntarakṣita, Padmasambhava, and Vimalamitra from India and Mohoyen from China, Tri Songdetsen initiated extensive Buddhist projects, including the construction of Samye Monastery, the institution of the first Tibetan monastic community, and above all the systematic translation of Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan from Sanskrit and Chinese. A great number of Mahāyāna sūtras, which contained the teachings on bodhicitta, as well as many tantras and commentaries, were translated toward the end of the eighth century and beginning of the ninth century, as witnessed by the catalogs of texts created around that time. For instance, ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', which elaborates on the cultivation of bodhicitta, and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', two of the main treatises discussing bodhicitta, were translated as part of this massive translation program.

Similarly, tantric texts such as ''The Garland of Views: The King of Pith Instructions'' (''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'')<ref>*''Rājopadeśadarśanamālā'' (''Man ngag gi rgyal po lta ba'i 'phreng ba''), in Pe cing Tengyur Q4726, vol. 77, rgyud 'grel, bu, 414b7–419b5, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG13126_4726.</ref> by Padmasambhava and ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta'' (aka ''Bodhicittabhāvanā'') by Mañjuśrīmitra,<ref>*''Bodhicittabhāvanā'' (''Byang sems rdo la gser zhun''), also known as ''Meditation on Bodhicitta'' (''Byang chub kyi sems bsgom pa''), in Derge Tengyur D2591, vol. 66, rgyud 'grel, cu, 1b1–4b7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_2591.</ref> which explain the concept of ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric context, were also translated and taught. Mañjuśrīmitra praises bodhicitta in the latter text as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All dharmas considered to be sublime features of liberation
Are qualities of perfecting bodhicitta; they come from bodhicitta.<ref>ཇི་སྙེད་འཕགས་པའི་རྣམ་གྲོལ་ཆོས་སུ་བསྙད་པ་དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཉིད་རྫོགས་ལས་དེ་ཡི་ཡོན་ཏན་དེ་ལས་དེ་དག་བྱུང་། Mañjuśrīmitra, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems sde spyi'i snying po'i bstan bcos byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun'', in Damngak Dzö, vol. 1, ka, 182, fol. 9b2–3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun#tab=Tibetan_Text.</ref>
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Many texts now included in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras (Nyingma Gyubum), such as ''The All Creating King of Bodhicitta'' (''Kulayarājatantra''),<ref>''Sarvadharmamahāśantibodhicittakulayarāja'' (''Chos thams cad rdzogs pa chen po byang chub kyi sems kun byed rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D828, vol. 97, rnying rgyud, ka, 1b1–86a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0828.</ref> formulate the concept of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and appear to have been translated by Vairocana and others during this period. History also records a debate between the gradualist Indian tradition, led by Kamalaśīla, and the simultaneist Chinese tradition, led by Mohoyen, with King Trisong Detsen as the judge. The Indian side that promoted a gradualist approach to the cultivation of bodhicitta is said to have won, and the king is said to have declared the gradualist Indian tradition to be the official system in Tibet. This period of the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet came to be known as the early diffusion period, or ''ngadar'', in contrast to the later diffusion period, or ''chidar'', which took place in Tibet from the eleventh century onward.

The great Buddhist intellectual and spiritual activity in Tibet that included the translation of innumerable works and the open promotion of Buddhist teachings stopped in the middle of the ninth century. As the Yarlung dynasty collapsed due to internecine conflicts, Tibet entered a century and half of political fragmentation and intellectual decline. However, with the revival of Buddhist systems toward the end of the tenth century, Tibet witnessed a resurgence of the study and practice of bodhicitta both in the exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric traditions. Those who preserved the teachings from the early diffusion period became known as the Ancient, or Nyingma, school, while others who brought new teachings from India, Nepal, and Kashmir came to be known as the New, or Sarma, schools. The new schools included some of the leading sects such as Kadam, Kagyu, and Sakya.

Within the Nyingma school, the teachings on bodhicitta continued through the received tradition known as the ''kama'' teachings as well as the new revelations known as ''terma''. The received ''kama'' tradition, which covers the complete range of the Buddhist system, including the nine vehicles, passed on the study and practice of bodhicitta as an essential component of the Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna path. Most of the books in the Collection of Nyingma Tantras, considered to be apocryphal writings by later critics, began to circulate as Buddhism was revived in the eleventh century. Many of these works described bodhicitta as the state of perfect enlightenment which is latent in beings. This was further enhanced by the ''terma'' literature, which is believed to have been hidden by Padmasambhava and his coterie in the eighth and ninth centuries to be revealed and disseminated by treasure discoverers, or ''tertön''s, at the right time in the future. Composed mostly of ritual liturgies and meditation instructions, the numerous cycles of rediscovered teachings also promoted bodhicitta as a fundamental aspect of Vajrayāna practice.

The new schools equally underscored the importance of bodhicitta in both exoteric sūtra and esoteric tantric study and practice. Among the most notable developments in this period was the arrival of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara (982–1055) in Tibet in 1042 CE at the invitation of Jangchub Ö, the king of Western Tibet. Historians narrate that with the chaotic and decentralized revival of Buddhism in Tibet toward the end of tenth century, the kings of Western Tibet were alarmed by the wayward conduct of some Buddhist teachers who were abusing tantric practices by making some of the secretive teachings public and taking some of the symbolic teachings literally. Thus, the kings felt the urgency to correct this by inviting an authoritative and eminent master from India, a bill which Atiśa fit perfectly, as he had become renowned as the most erudite and accomplished master in India by this time. Traditional Tibetan historians claim that Yeshe Ö, the monk ruler of Western Tibet and uncle of Jangchub Ö, was taken prisoner in a conflict with the Garlog Turks, who demanded a ransom in gold equal to his size. Yeshe Ö is said to have instructed his nephew to use the gold his nephew had raised to invite Atiśa to Tibet, rather than giving it to the Turks. This story, contested by some modern scholars, is often told to highlight the personal sacrifices made by Tibet’s kings to bring the sacred teachings of the Buddha to Tibet.<ref>See Sam van Schaik, ''Tibet: A History'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 57.</ref>

After two separate emissaries to India led by Gya Lotsāwa Tsöndru Senge (བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེངྒེ་, d.u.) and Naktso Lotsāwa Tsultrim Gyalwa (ནག་འཚོ་ལོ་ཙཱ་བ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱལ་བ་, 1011–1064) respectively, and after much effort to persuade the abbot of Vikramaśīla, Atiśa was allowed to travel to Tibet. Jangchub Ö received him in Western Tibet, and during his time in the royal court, Atiśa composed ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhipathapradīpa'', (''Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma''), in Derge Tengyur D3947, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 238a6–241a4, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3947.</ref> a treatise which laid out the spiritual path for three types of persons. This text, along with its autocommentary, highlighted the ethical aspects of the Buddhist path, including the practice of bodhicitta, and would become the exemplar of the ''lamrim'' genre of literature on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Atiśa also composed the short text ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' (''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī''),<ref>Atiśa Dīpaṃkara, ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fols. 294b7–296a1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref> which supplemented his earlier work on the conduct of the bodhisattva. He writes in it:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Cultivate loving kindness and compassion;
Hold firm the thought of enlightenment. (v. 5)<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེ་བསྒོམ་བྱ་ཞིང༌། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ནི་བརྟན་པར་བྱ། ། ''Bodhisattvamaṇyāvalī'' (''Byang chub sems dpa'i nor bu'i phreng ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3951, vol. 111, dbu ma, khi, fol. 295a.2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3951.</ref>
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Besides these two main works on bodhicitta and Mahāyāna, Atiśa also composed numerous other treatises and commentaries, many of them at the request of his Tibetan students. His teachings were spread by his many students, including Dromtön Gyalwai Jungne (འབྲོམ་སྟོན་རྒྱལ་བའི་འབྱུང་གནས་, 1004–64), his lay disciple who established Reting Monastery and launched the Kadam tradition, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab (རྔོག་ལེགས་པའི་ཤེས་རབ, eleventh century), who founded Sangpu Neuthok, the famous Buddhist scholastic center in Tibet that flourished from the eleventh–fourteenth centuries. The three chief students of Dromtönpa—Potowa Rinchen Sal (པོ་ཏོ་བ་རིན་ཆེན་གསལ་, 1027–1105), Chengawa Tsultrim Bar (སྤྱན་སྔ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་འབར་, 1033/8–1103), and Puchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen (ཕུ་ཆུང་བ་གཞོན་ནུ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1031–1106)—often referred to as the three brothers (''སྐུ་མཆེད་རྣམ་གསུམ་''), developed the Kadam tradition further and initiated the rise of the rich and powerful tradition of Lojong, or mind training. At the heart of the Lojong tradition is the practice of cultivating bodhicitta, particularly through the seven points of cause and effect.

While Atiśa was on his way to Tibet, he met Marpa Chökyi Lodro (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012?–1097) in Kathmandu. Marpa, who declined to be Atiśa’s translator, was at that time on his trip to India to receive teachings from Nāropa. Having received teachings from many masters such as Nāropa, Maitrīpa, and Jñānagarbha, Marpa started giving teachings to numerous disciples in southern Tibet, leading to the establishment of the Marpa Kagyu school. Teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta were disseminated through this school, and they were especially integrated into the instructions on Mahāmudrā and the Six Yogas of Nāropa. These teachings would spread widely in the subsequent centuries through at least twelve different subschools founded by the followers of Marpa.

Before Marpa embarked on his journeys to India, he studied under Drokmi Śākya Yeshe (འབྲོག་མི་ཤཱཀྱ་ཡེ་ཤེས་, 992?–1043/1072), whose fees turned out to be too high for Marpa to afford. Drokmi had traveled to Nepal and India before Marpa and studied under many Buddhist teachers. He also translated many texts, but his specialization lay in the teachings on the Path and Result, or Lamdre (ལམ་འབྲས་), which he received from Gayadhāra (ག་ཡ་དྷ་ར་, 994–1043) and Prajñendraruci (aka Vīravajra, eleventh century). In Tibet, he passed on these teachings to his main disciples, including Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya school, which has championed the teachings of the Path and Result, of which bodhicitta is an essential component.

The bodhicitta teachings propagated by Marpa and Drokmi relied heavily on extensive new tantras such as the ''Hevajra'', ''Cakrasaṃvara'', and ''Guhyasamaja''. They promoted the concept of bodhicitta both in its ethical dimension as the compassionate intention to take all sentient beings to perfect enlightenment and its ontological dimension as the state of ultimate reality. The following statement from the ''Hevajratantra'' sums up this unity:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=That which is called bodhicitta
Is the nonduality of emptiness and compassion.<ref>སྟོང་ཉིད་སྙིང་རྗེ་དབྱེར་མེད་པ། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་རབ་ཏུ་བརྗོད། ། ''Hevajratantra'' (''Kye'i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po''), in Derge Kangyur D417, vol. 80, rgyud, nga, fol. 13a.3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0417.</ref>
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The tantric teachings of the newer Marpa Kagyu and Sakya schools also discuss what Dorji Wangchuk calls the "psycho-physiological form of bodhicitta"—referring to seminal bodily fluids within tantric practices that utilize physical and psychic energies as catalysts for speedy spiritual transformation.<ref>For this discussion in Wangchuk, see chapter 6 in ''The Resolve to Become a Buddha: A Study of the Bodhicitta Concept in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism'' (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 2007), 217–23.</ref> Thus, the discussion of bodhicitta in such tantric contexts saw new heights in Tibetan religious discourse as the tantric schools gained prominence and became mainstream Buddhist traditions in Tibet.

Another important tradition through which the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread in Tibet, although the tradition did not take off to the same extent as the Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, and Sakya, is the Shangpa Kagyu, which originated in the famous scholar and meditation master Khyungpo Naljor (Khyung po rnal 'byor, 1050–1127). Khyungpo Naljor visited India and Nepal around seven times and studied under numerous teachers, his main masters being the female savants Sukhasiddhi and Nāropa’s sister Niguma, from whom he received the Six Yogas of Niguma. Similarly, the practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through the tradition of Severance, or Chö (''གཅོད་''), which is said to have begun with Machik Labdron (མ་གཅིག་ལབ་སྒྲོན་, 1055–1149), and Pacification, or Zhije (''ཞི་བྱེད་''), a tradition attributed to Padampa Sangye (ཕ་དམ་པ་སངས་རྒྱས་, eleventh century). ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' by the brahmin Āryadeva, which is a root text of the Chöd tradition, states at the outset:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Take up with respect the practice of refuge and thought of enlightenment
Follow the precepts like protecting one’s eyes.
The precepts of the bodhisattva
Should not be abandoned even at the cost of one’s life. v.5<ref>གུས་པས་སྐྱབས་འགྲོ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་བླང་། །བླངས་པའི་བསླབ་བྱ་མིག་བཞིན་བསྲུང་། །བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའི་བསླབ་བྱ་ནི། །སྲོག་གི་ཕྱིར་ཡང་སྤང་མི་བྱ། ། Āryadeva, ''Instructions on the Perfection of Wisdom'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod (Delhi: Shechen Publications, 1999), 14:2-3, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:%27phags_pa_shes_rab_kyi_pha_rol_tu_phyin_pa%27i_man_ngag Retrieved on 4/6/2025.</ref>
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Similarly, Padampa Sangye, in one of his famous pieces of advice given to the local people in Dingri, states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The six realms of beings are precious as fields for gathering two accumulations.
Hold a loving mind and compassion, O Dingri people.<ref>ཚོགས་གཉིས་ཡུལ་དུ་རིགས་དྲུག་སེམས་ཅན་གཅེས། །བྱམས་སེམས་ཐུགས་རྗེ་ཟུངས་ཤིག་དིང་རི་བ། ། Padampa Sangye, ''Heart Advice Called The Stack of Lotus'' (''Thugs kyi zhal gdams pad+mo brtsegs pa''), in Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod, 13:449, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Thugs_kyi_zhal_chems_pad_mo_brtsegs_pa#tab=null.</ref>
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The study and practice of bodhicitta also spread in Tibet through other transmissions such as the Kālacakra (more specifically, the six branches of yogic practice associated with Kālacakra teachings) and through the three vajra accomplishment practice of Orgyenpa Rinchen Pel (ཨོ་རྒྱན་པ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1229–1309). These transmissions, along with the teachings and meditation techniques in the Nyingma, Kadam, Marpa Kagyu, Shangpa Kagyu, and Sakya schools, as well as the Severance and Pacification traditions, make up the "eight great chariots of practice" (''སྒྲུབ་བརྒྱུད་ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེ་བརྒྱད་'') and are considered to be the main practice lineages that formed during the Buddhist resurgence of the later diffusion period. It was through these traditions that the study and practice of bodhicitta, as an essential element of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism, spread across Tibet.

== The Propagation of Bodhicitta Teachings in Tibet ==

=== The Nyingma School ===
As these Buddhist schools and their associated teachings and practices flourished from the eleventh century onward—having first developed in the eighth century—Tibet also witnessed the sustained spread of bodhicitta teachings. Among the Nyingma, we see the continuous transmission of bodhicitta study and practice both through the received ''kama'' tradition and the new ''terma'' revelations. While the rediscovered ''terma'' teachings focused primarily on ritual texts and meditation instructions that emphasized bodhicitta as a key practice, the ''kama'' tradition presented bodhicitta mainly as an ontological state representing ultimate reality. This was done through discourses on the ground nature, the path of pristine awareness, and the resultant state of the Buddha, all of which were presented as the nondual, innate, luminous nature of the mind.

The three inner tantras of the Nyingma—comprising Mahāyoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga—and the outer mind cycle, inner space cycle, and secret instruction cycle of the Atiyoga or Dzogchen teachings underscored the study and practice of bodhicitta as the innate nature of one’s mind. These tantric presentations were systematized and elaborated in the writings of leading Nyingma masters such as Rongzom Chökyi Zangpo (Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, mid-eleventh–early twelfth centuries), Longchenpa Drime Ozer (ཀློང་ཆེན་རབ་འབྱམས་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyel (མངའ་རིས་པཎ་ཆེན་པདྨ་དབང་རྒྱལ་, 1487–1542), Lochen Dharmaśrī (ལོ་ཆེན་དྷརྨ་ཤྲཱི་, 1654–1718), and Jigme Lingpa (འཇིགས་མེད་གླིང་པ་, 1739–1798). Rongzom and Longchenpa, for instance, carried out detailed discussions on bodhicitta in the context of the ultimate nature of the mind in Dzogchen thought, making them the greatest thinkers and masters of the Dzogchen system. In his treatise ''Entering the Way of the Mahāyāna'' (''ཐེག་པ་ཆེན་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པ་''), Rongzom discusses bodhicitta in detail and states:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The base of all phenomena is included in the mind and appearances of the mind. The nature of the mind is awakening, thus it is called the mind of awakening.<ref>ཆོས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་རྩ་བ་ནི་སེམས་དང་སེམས་སྣང་བ་ཙམ་དུ་འདུས་ལ། སེམས་ཀྱི་རང་བཞིན་ཉིད་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཡིན་པས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཞེས་བྱའོ།། See Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po’i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:477.</ref>
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He also writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Here, bodhicitta is the cultivation of thought combining wisdom and compassion.<ref>དེ་ལ་བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་སེམས་ནི་འདིར་ཤེས་རབ་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་བསྡུས་པའི་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའོ།། Rongzom Chozang, ''Theg pa chen po'i tshul la 'jug pa'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:500.</ref>
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Rongzom, Longchenpa, and Lochen Dharmaśrī also commented on ''The Heart of Secret Tantra'' (''Guhyagarbhatantra''), which highlights the concept of bodhicitta as the innate nature of reality. Rongzom starts his commentary on this tantra with the claim that "bodhicitta is the essence of Three Jewels."<ref>དཀོན་མཆོག་གསུམ་གྱི་རང་བཞིན་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས། ། Rongzom Chozang, ''Rgyud rgyal gsang ba snying po dkon cog 'grel'', in Rong zom chos bzang gi gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1999), 1:33.</ref> With great emphasis on the higher tantric practices, the Nyingma masters vigorously took up the study and practice of bodhicitta as the ultimate nature of the mind and as the pristine nonconceptual self-awareness of such nature.

The Nyingma masters also covered the concept of bodhicitta as the altruistic intention to attain perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. Among them, Longchenpa, who is unrivaled among the Nyingma masters in the systematization and synthesis of the Nyingma teachings in general and the Dzogchen system in particular, was perhaps the first one to discuss the theory and practice of relative bodhicitta in detail. He did this in two of his major works: ''The Treasury of Wish-fulfilling Jewels'' (''ཡིད་བཞིན་མཛོད་'')<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Yid bzhin mdzod rtsa ba'', in Mdzod bdun (a 'dzom par ma) (A 'dzom chos sgar: Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul dpal yul rdzong a 'dzom chos sgar, 1999), 1:3–88, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD8_31FD92.</ref> and ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' (''སེམས་ཉིད་ངལ་གསོ་'').<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:25–113, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_BEDB7A. For an English translation, see Helena Blankleder and Wulstan Fletcher (Padmakara Translation Group), trans., ''Finding Rest in the Nature of the Mind'', vol. 1 of ''The Trilogy of Rest'', by Longchenpa (Boulder, CO: Shambhala Publications, 2017).</ref> Like Rongzompa's description of bodhicitta as the essence of the Three Jewels, Longchenpa claims bodhicitta to be the root of all Dharma in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'':
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having become properly accustomed to the immeasurable thoughts,
One must cultivate the two types of bodhicitta, the root of all Dharma.<ref>དེ་ལྟར་ཚད་མེད་ལེགས་པར་གོམས་པ་ཡིས། །ཆོས་ཀུན་རྩ་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་གཉིས་བསྒོམ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes poʼi shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:46–47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
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He also defines bodhicitta in the following manner:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=To cultivate the [bodhicitta] thought is to desire
To reach the perfect buddha for the sake of limitless beings.<ref>སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པ་ནི་ཚད་མེད་འགྲོ་བའི་ཕྱིར། །ཡང་དག་སངས་རྒྱས་ཐོབ་པར་འདོད་པ་སྟེ། །སྨོན་དང་འཇུག་པའི་རང་བཞིན་གཉིས་ཡིན་ནོ། ། See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 20:47, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref>
}}
Closely following Longchenpa's elaborate discussion of bodhicitta—its definition, types, procedures for taking bodhicitta vow, and precepts—in his ''Resting in the Nature of the Mind'' and its two-volume commentary entitled ''The Great Chariot'' (''ཤིང་རྟ་ཆེན་པོ་''),<ref>See Longchenpa, ''Rdzogs pa chen po sems nyid ngal gso'i 'grel pa shing rta chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dri med 'od zer (dpal brtsegs mes po'i shul bzhag), Par gzhi dang po par thengs dang po (Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), vols. 20–21, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG4884_21B78D.</ref> Ngari Paṇchen carries out a clear and elaborate discussion of bodhicitta and bodhisattva ethics in his ''Ascertaining Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་པ་གསུམ་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ་''),<ref>See Ngari Paṇchen Pema Wangyal, ''Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'', in Sdom pa gsum rnam par nges pa'i rtsa ba dang mchan 'grel rig pa 'dzin pa'i 'jug ngogs (Bylakuppe: Snga 'gyur mtho slob mdo sngags rig pa'i 'byung gnas, 1996), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23221. For an English translation of the root text, see Khenpo Gyurme Samdrub and Sangye Khandro, trans., ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'', by Ngari Paṇchen Wangyal, with commentary by Dudjom Rinpoche (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2014).</ref> on which Lochen Dharmaśrī wrote a commentary.<ref>See Lochen Dharmaśrī, ''Sdom gsum rtsa ba dang de'i 'grel pa dpag bsam snye ma sogs'' (Gser rta rdzong: Gser thang bla rung lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, n.d.), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN4872.</ref> Dharmaśrī also wrote a detailed explanation of the eighteen root downfalls or transgressions associated with the bodhisattva vow according to ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''. Similarly, Jigme Lingpa deliberated on bodhicitta in ''The Treasury of Precious Qualities'' (''ཡོན་ཏན་མཛོད་'') and in his autocommentary.<ref>See Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod dga' ba'i char'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (A 'dzom par ma: 'Brug spa gror bskyar par btab pa, 1990–1999), 1:29–166, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW7477_19AE1E.</ref>

The master most famous for championing the promotion of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, however, was Patrul Orgyen Jigme Chökyi Wangpo (དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་ཨོ་རྒྱན་འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་ཀྱི་དབང་པོ་, 1808–1887). This wandering teacher reportedly taught ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' over a hundred times. His love for and expertise in this text was so remarkable that he was considered an incarnation of the Indian master Śāntideva by his contemporaries. Patrul held regular teaching retreats during which he would expound upon the text and also carry out the cultivation of bodhicitta. In this manner, he left behind a rich tradition of teaching and practicing bodhicitta in general and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in particular. He also authored the famous inspirational work entitled ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (''ཀུན་བཟང་བླ་མའི་ཞལ་ལུང་།''),<ref>See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Kun bzang bla ma'i zhal lung'', part 1 and 2 (Kathmandu: Rigpe Dorje Institute, 2024), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-1-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-1/; https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/rdi-ss-42-2-the-words-of-my-perfect-teacher-part-2/.</ref> which contains persuasive stories and teachings on compassion and bodhicitta. In one of his prayers, ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (''རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་མཆོག་ཏུ་སེམས་བསྐྱེད་པའི་སྨོན་ལམ།''), he remarks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood.<ref> ཡོད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་དེས་ཆོག་ཅིང་། །མེད་ན་སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་ལ་ཐབས་ཆག་པ། །སངས་རྒྱས་སྒྲུབ་པའི་ས་བོན་མ་ནོར་བ། །རྣམ་དག་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་བསྐྱེད་པར་ཤོག ། For the Tibetan text, see Patrul Rinpoche, ''Rnam dag byang chub mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i smon lam'' (Lotsawa House, 2010, rev. 2012 & 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/patrul-rinpoche/aspiration-generate-bodhichitta. The translation belongs to Karma Phuntsho.</ref>
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Patrul's inspiration and influence spread beyond his own Nyingma school, especially with regard to his deep understanding and unparalleled expertise in teaching and practicing bodhicitta according to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. In the true spirit of Rime ecumenism of which he was a leading advocate, he would teach this text to different audiences, using the commentaries and giving interpretations which were most appropriate to each group. He did not compose a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as did many other Tibetan masters, but he wrote a guide for putting the text into practice and a powerful outline that captures the content and layout of the entire text with exceptional clarity and cohesion. Patrul became an immensely respected doyen for the study and practice of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', so much so that almost everyone studying and teaching the text after him embraced his lineage and traced their line of transmission to him.

Patrul's students recorded the gems of his insight into ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the commentary they put together. Among the many students who received teachings from him on bodhicitta was Orgyen Tenzin Norbu (ཨོ་རྒྱན་བསྟན་འཛིན་ནོར་བུ་, 1841?–1900?), who received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' from Patrul many times and taught it some two hundred times. Both he and Patrul taught Kunzang Palden (ཀུན་བཟང་དཔལ་ལྡན་, 1862–1943), who recorded their instructions in the extensive commentary entitled ''The Nectar of Mañjuśrī's Speech''.<ref>Kunzang Pelden, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i tshig 'grel 'jam dbyangs bla ma'i zhal lung bdud rtsi'i thigs pa'', in Gsung 'bum kun bzang dpal ldan, vol. 1 (Lama Ngodru and Sherab Demy, 1982), 5–746, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23946_57D951. For a bilingual version of the text with English translation by Padmakara, see this site: https://bodhicitta.tsadra.org/index.php/Books/The_Nectar_of_Manjushri%27s_Speech/Sabche.</ref> Another student, Jigme Chöphel Zangpo (འཇིགས་མེད་ཆོས་དཔལ་བཟང་པོ་, nineteenth century), received teachings on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' nine times from Patrul and compiled the notes from him on the first three and the tenth chapters. Minyak Kunzang Sonam (མི་ཉག་ཀུན་བཟང་བསོད་ནམས་, 1823–1905), a scholar from the Geluk tradition, also received teachings on the text nine times from Patrul and composed an extensive commentary.<ref>See Minyak Kunzang Sonam, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel bshad rgyal sras rgya mtsho'i yon tan rin po che mi zad 'jo ba'i bum bzang'', in ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel bshad rgyal sras yon tan bum bzang'' (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990), 1–584, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW15659.</ref>

A student of Patrul who left a significant legacy for the Nyingma tradition was Ju Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (འཇུ་མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912), probably Tibet's greatest polymath. Mipham wrote on a wide range of subjects and left behind an astounding thirty-two volumes covering almost all sciences known to him. His writings on Buddhist philosophy and practice, which contain the Nyingma understanding of Buddhist topics, form the core curriculum for scholastic study and meditation practice in the Nyingma tradition today. ''The Ketaka Gem'' (''ནོར་བུ་ཀེ་ཏ་ཀ་''), his commentary on the ninth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', which he wrote after he received teachings on it from Patrul, is a good example of his philosophical writing.<ref>See Mipham Gyatso, ''Spyod 'jug sher 'grel ke ta ka'' (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1993), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4996.</ref> While the text triggered polemical exchanges between him and his opponents, today it is widely read among followers of the Nyingma school. Mipham wrote a great deal on relative and ultimate bodhicitta in a number of his works in the context of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, including a commentary on Mañjuśrīmitra's ''Liquid Gold on Stone: The Cultivation of Bodhicitta''.<ref>Mipham Gyatso, ''Byang chub sems bsgom pa rdo la gser zhun gyi mchan 'grel de kho na nyid gsal ba'i sgron me'', in Mi pham rgya mtsho'i gsung 'bum (Khreng tu'u: Gangs can rig gzhung dpe rnying myur skyobs lhan tshogs, 2007), 23:63-95. See also https://online.adarshah.org/index.html?kdb=mipam&sutra=MP203&page=13-3-1ahttps://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/Wylie:Rdzogs_pa_chen_po_sems_sde_spyi%27i_snying_po%27i_bstan_bcos_byang_chub_sems_bsgom_pa_rdo_la_gser_zhun.</ref> The legacies of Patrul and Mipham continued through the works of their students and followers, who vigorously promoted the study and practice of bodhicitta.

The Kham region of Tibet experienced a remarkable renaissance of the Nyingma tradition during the era of the great masters of Patrul and Mipham. This renaissance, which involved many eminent figures, saw a massive burst of new scholarship and ''terma'' revelation as well as the compilation, classification, and reproduction of existing Nyingma literature. Simultaneously, there was also a revitalization of Nyingma monasticism and the development of scholastic activity through the new culture of ''shedra'' exegetical seminaries, which became vibrant centers of scholarship. The literary and institutional legacies left by this renaissance changed the trajectory of the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school.

It was ultimately the Rime movement led by Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (འཇམ་དབྱངས་མཁྱེན་བརྩེའི་དབང་པོ་, 1820–1892), Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (འཇམ་མགོན་ཀོང་སྤྲུལ་བློ་གྲོས་མཐའ་ཡས་, 1813–1899), Patrul Rinpoche, and Mipham that had a significant impact on wider Buddhist study and practice. This movement came into being primarily to counteract the sectarian disputes and violence that frequently occurred between Tibetan Buddhist schools. Historical examples of violent sectarian conflicts include clashes between the Sakyapas and Drigungpas (thirteenth–fourteenth centuries), Kagyupas and Gelukpas (seventeenth century), and Nyingma and Geluk schools (eighteenth century). Moreover, the Gelukpa school with the political support of the Gaden Phodrang government had been extending their influence since the fifteenth century, leading to widespread religious prejudice and proselytization. In addition, the Rime masters had reservations about Gelukpa scholasticism, which was codified in individual college textbooks and professed through the eristic study of formulaic argumentation. Mipham particularly expressed such concern about the rigidity, verbosity, and aridity of Gelukpa scholasticism, which was founded on sophistic logic.

To stem this scholastic trend and the doctrinal controversies arising from partisan interpretations, the Rime teachers promoted the reorientation of religious study toward the Indian original texts and an eclectic approach to studying the essential teachings of all Tibetan traditions regardless of one's religious affiliation. This led to a restructuring of scholarly curricula in the ''shedra'' exegetical colleges and fostered some degree of interdenominational learning and teaching by the beginning of the twentieth century. To this effect, Khenpo Zhenga, or Zhenphen Chökyi Nangwa (གཞན་ཕན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྣང་བ་, 1871–1927), an ecumenical abbot of the ''shedra'' in Dzongsar, compiled commentaries on thirteen great classic Indian treatises, including ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', ''The Four Hundred Verses on Yoga'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', which discuss bodhicitta and the bodhisattva path in detail. His commentaries, which are based on the writings by the Indian masters, came to be widely used as the core curriculum in the rising ''shedra'' colleges affiliated with the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Sakya schools.

The study and practice of bodhicitta were flourishing in the scholastic and meditation centers when the People’s Liberation Army swept across Tibet. This was followed by the tragic Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). These events no doubt disrupted the scholarly pursuit of bodhicitta and gave ample opportunities for its practitioners to put it into practice in the face of overwhelming challenges and hardship. Toward the end of the twentieth century, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Nyingma school, like in most other Tibetan Buddhist schools, recovered and reached new heights in large centers such as Namdroling Monastery in India and Larung Gar and Yachen in Tibet. These institutions attracted unprecedented numbers of students from Tibet and around the world, all of whom came to pursue Buddhist education through modernized monastic college programs that typically lasted nine years and covered topics such as bodhicitta in comprehensive detail.

=== The Kadam School ===
The Kadam school, which is considered the earliest of the ''sarma'', or new, schools, came to be known as a leading promoter of teachings on bodhicitta. Atiśa Dīpaṃkara is said to have combined in his teachings and practice both the Profound View and Vast Conduct traditions—the two main transmissions of Mahāyāna teachings in general and bodhicitta in particular. He received these transmissions from numerous masters such as Dharmarakṣita, Bodhibhadra, Dharmakīrti, Maitrīyogi, and Nāropa, and passed them down to numerous students, including his three main students—Dromtön Gyelwai Jungne, who founded Reting Monastery, Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung, and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. The Kadam tradition became formalized as a tradition of seven divinity-dharmas (''བཀའ་གདམས་ལྷ་ཆོས་བདུན་ལྡན་''), which include Śākyamuni, Avalokiteśvara, Tārā, and Acala as four deities and the corpuses of Vinaya, Sūtra, and Abhidharma as the three dharmas.

The founding fathers of Kadam were succeeded by many influential masters, chief among whom were the aforementioned "three Kadam brothers"—Potowa Rinchen Sal, Chengawa Tsultrim Bar, and Phuchungwa Shönu Gyaltsen. As the Kadam tradition evolved, it also saw the development of two distinct lines of practice, especially in terms of the content and style of its teachings. Firstly, the Kadam tradition became a champion of the Lamrim, or stages of path, tradition. The Lamrim tradition revolved around Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', which covered the paths for persons of inferior, middling, and superior capacities. This was supplemented by the six treatises of Kadam (''བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་དྲུག་''), which they adopted as their core scriptural sources. They included Asaṅga's ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'', Maitreya's ''Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''Compendium of Training'', Āryaśūra's ''Garland of Birth Stories'' (''Jātakamāla''),<ref>Āryaśūra, ''Jātakamāla'', in Derge Tengyur D4150, vol. 168, skyes rab, hu, 1b1-135a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4150.</ref> and ''The Collection of Aphorisms'' (''Udānavarga''),<ref>''Udānavarga'' (''Ched du brjod pa'i tshoms''), in Derge Kangyur D326, vol. 72, mdo sde, sa 209a1–253a7, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0326.</ref> attributed to the historical Buddha. These texts became the main treatises for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Kadam tradition.

Among the early Tibetan ''lamrim'' texts were Potowa's ''Blue Booklet'' (བེའུ་བུམ་སྔོན་མོ།), works by Gönpawa Wangchuk Gyaltsen (དགོན་པ་བ་དབང་ཕྱུག་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1016–1082) that drew directly from Atiśa's teachings, and texts by Ngok Lekpai Sherap that were based on the teachings of Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung. Stressing the importance of bodhicitta, Potowa, as quoted by Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361), states in ''The Blue Booklet'',
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Knowing them to be just like oneself,
Treat everyone with love and compassion.
By doing so, if one upholds bodhicitta,
Therein lies each and every dharma.<ref>བདག་ཅི་འདྲ་བ་དེ་འདྲར་ཤེས་པས། །ཀུན་ལ་བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེས་འཇུག་བྱ། །དེས་བསྐྱེད་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དང་ལྡན་ན། །དེ་ལ་ཆོས་རྣམས་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀུན་གནས། ། Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen, ''Bka' gdams kyi man ngag be'u bum sngon mo'i rtsa 'grel (Lhasa, Sertsu Nangten Penying Tsholdu Chokdrikhang, 2016), 24, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG25234.</ref>
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Potowa also composed ''The Teaching in Similes'' (དཔེ་ཆོས།), which contains similes, sayings, and stories from folk culture employed to illustrate the points related to the spiritual path. Around the same time, a set of literary compositions on the spiritual path closely related to the ''lamrim'' called ''tenrim'' (བསྟན་རིམ་), or stages of the doctrine, developed. ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Doctrine'' (བསྟན་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ།) by Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne (གྲོ་ལུང་པ་བློ་གྲོས་འབྱུང་གནས་, eleventh century) is perhaps the earliest one.<ref>See Drolungpa Lodrö Jungne, ''Bstan rim chen mo'' (Delhi: Norbu Kharphigsi Publications, 2014), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG24221.</ref> These books, in contrast to works in the ''lamrim'' genre which lay out the path for the persons of three capacities, discuss the different teachings in the Buddhist system, taking an inclusive and cohesive approach in order to reconcile the diverse teachings. Some scholars understood the terms ''lamrim'' and ''tenrim'' to be synonyms, but others differentiated the two and considered ''tenrim'' to refer to public discourses and ''lamrim'' to refer to personalized private instructions.

Whatever the case, the approach of seeing all teachings as noncontradictory, understanding all scriptures as pith instructions, fathoming the intent of the Buddha easily, and absolving evil actions spontaneously are seen as the four special qualities of the Kadam tradition. With such an open and inclusive approach, the Kadam master generally embraced all Buddhist teachings. Yet, this did not entail a monotonous and homogenous system. Based on their specializations, the adherents of the Kadam school became divided into the tradition of scriptures (བཀའ་གདམས་གཞུང་པ་) associated with Potowa and the tradition of oral and didactic pith instructions (བཀའ་གདམས་མན་ངག་པ་) associated with Chengawa, the latter further divided by some into essential instructions and oral instructions. In the cases of both the scriptural and instructional traditions, there were numerous other methods, styles, and techniques for presenting the teachings. Potowa favored approaching the teachings through mindfulness of the Buddha, Puchungwa through dependent origination, and Chengawa through the four noble truths. Within a couple generations of its diffusion, the Lamrim tradition of the Kadam school generated numerous commentaries and instructional texts while developing diverse approaches and styles for practicing the ''lamrim'' teachings.

The second most important component of Kadam study and practice was the tradition of Mind Training, or Lojong. Atiśa received various texts and techniques for mind training from his Indian teachers and passed them on to his main disciples, who in turn passed them on to their disciples. The pith instructions for mind training were mostly transmitted as secret teachings (ལྐོག་ཆོས་) in private sessions. Potowa passed down the ''lojong'' transmissions to Sharawa Yönten Drak (ཤ་ར་ཡོན་ཏན་གྲགས་, 1070–1141), whose disciple Tumtön Lodrö Drak (གཏུམ་སྟོན་བློ་གྲོས་གྲགས་, ca. 1106–1166) founded the famous Kadam center of Narthang in 1153, and to Langri Thangpa (གླང་རི་ཐང་པ་, 1054–1123), who composed ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' (''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'').<ref>See Langri Thangpa, ''Blo sbyong tshig brgyad ma'', in Blo sbyong nyer mkho phyogs bsgrigs, ed. Ngag dbang sbyin pa and Cha ris skal bzang thogs med (Kan su: Kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 172–73, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW25275_54767F.</ref> Sharawa passed the instructions on to Chekawa Yeshe Dorje ('Chad kha ba ye shes rdo rje, 1101–1175), who established Cheka Monastery and composed the famous ''Seven-Point Mind Training'' (''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'').<ref>See Chekawa Yeshe Dorje, ''Blo sbyong don bdun ma'i rtsa tshig sogs'', Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1NLM668.</ref> The transmission of ''lojong'' from Chekawa branched into northern and southern traditions and spread widely, with the cultivation of ultimate and relative bodhicitta as its core.

As the Kadam tradition evolved with its wealth of ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' teachings, its main historical records, teachings, and practices were compiled in ''The Book of Kadam'' (''བཀའ་གདམས་གླེགས་བམ་བཏུས་པའི་ཆོས་སྐོར་'').<ref>See Thupten Jinpa, ed., ''Bka' gdams glegs bam las btus pa'i chos skor'' (Delhi: Bod gyi gtsug lag zhib dpyod khang, 2005), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12514. For an English translation, see Thubten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008).</ref> With ''The Bodhisattva Garland of Gems'' by Atiśa at its core, the book contains sections called "Father Teachings," which are composed of questions and answers between Atiśa and Dromtönpa, and "Son Teachings," made up of questions and answers between Atiśa and Khutön Tsöndru Yungdrung and Ngok Lekpai Sherab. In the chapter discussing how all problems lie in the sole point of self-attachment—an important topic of meditation in the Lojong tradition—Atiśa asks:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text="In that case, do you understand the mind's true mode of being?"

"Yes, I do," replied Drom.

Atiśa: "So what need is there of desires for this mind; cultivate contentment. Even though you perceive many sentient beings, all of them are your fathers and mothers who have taken joy in your overcoming of misfortune and [attainment] of good fortune. They have cleaned your runny nose with their mouths, your excrement with their hands, have nurtured you with kingdoms and with gifts, and some, despite having been abandoned [by us], have cared for us again. It is due to the kindness of the teacher that positive qualities are revealed. In general, it is the teacher who has done you the great kindness of granting you your ultimate aim. And it is your parents who are the source of great kindness granting you joy and happiness in this life. You should therefore recognize their kindness and repay their kindness.

"For this, serve the teacher through respectful veneration and meditative practice, and toward your parents, in order to repay their kindness, cultivate immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable joy when they are happy, and immeasurable equanimity that is free of discriminating thoughts of near and distant. For the benefit of all—all your mothers—strive as much as possible to attain buddhahood and, discarding lingering doubts, cherish your persistence in meditative practice. Abandoning all obstacles such as sloth, mental dullness, and laziness, endeavor with joyful perseverance.

"Drom, although one speaks of "recognizing the kindness of others and repaying it," it all seems to pertain to the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, such as loving-kindness and compassion; the stabilization of the awakening mind; its enhancement from high to ever higher levels; and the definite steering of one's parents with the paddles of [the two awakening minds,] aspirational and engaging."<ref>Thunten Jinpa, ed. and trans., ''The Book of Kadam: The Core Texts'', by Atiśa and Dromtönpa (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2008), 125–26.</ref>
}}
These passages and the many texts and teachings in the Lamrim and Lojong traditions of the Kadam school sufficiently demonstrate how bodhicitta forms the bedrock of the Kadam tradition and how the school came to champion its propagation. We also see the gradual development of the structures and procedures for practice, such as the seven instructions of cause and effect.

In addition to its strong practical orientation, the theoretical and philosophical study of bodhicitta also flourished within the Kadam school. This took place mainly through the scholastic education at Sangpu Neutok, the monastic college which was founded by Ngok Lekpai Sherab in 1072 and which rose to be a prominent Kadam center of learning some fifty years after its founding. At its peak, Sangpu Neutok was the most well-known center for scholastic education in Tibet, with alumni that included the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa (དུས་གསུམ་མཁྱེན་པ་, 1110–1193), Longchenpa Drime Özer (ཀློང་ཆེན་པ་དྲི་མེད་འོད་ཟེར་, 1308–1364), Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (ཙོང་ཁ་པ་བློ་བཟང་གྲགས་པ་, 1357–1419), and Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (རོང་སྟོན་ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་རིག་, 1367–1449), who went to Sangpu for debate sessions. Some forty-five great masters such as Ngok Loden Sherab (རྔོག་བློ་ལྡན་ཤེས་རབ་, 1059–1109), Chapa Chökyi Senge (ཕྱ་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སེང་གེ་, 1109–1169), Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo (ཕག་མོ་གྲུ་པ་རྡོ་རྗེ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1110–1170), Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), Patsab Nyima Drakpa (པ་ཚབ་ཉི་མ་གྲགས་པ་, twelfth century) worked at Sangpu, making it a wonderful enclave of scholarship. Bodhicitta was rigorously studied through lectures, debates, and writing on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtras'', ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'', and many other texts.

Another Kadam center where both the theoretical study and practical application of the teachings flourished and where a combination of both the tradition of scriptures and oral instructions thrived was Narthang, located in the Tsang region. Narthang produced great scholars such as Chim Namkha Drak (མཆིམས་ནམ་མཁའ་གྲགས་, 1210–1285), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim (སྐྱོ་སྟོན་སྨོན་ལམ་ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་, 1219–1299), and Chomden Rikpai Raldri (བཅོམ་ལྡན་རིག་པའི་རལ་གྲི་, 1297–1305), who wrote commentaries on texts discussing bodhicitta and also composed practice manuals for its cultivation. Scholarship on bodhicitta flourished in the Kadam tradition. Some two dozen works, including full commentaries and short treatises, were written on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' alone by authors including Gyamar Jangchub Drak (རྒྱ་དམར་བ་བྱང་ཆུབ་གྲགས་, eleventh–twelfth century), Chapa Chökyi Senge, Tsangnakpa Tsöndru Senge (གཙང་ནག་པ་བརྩོན་འགྲུས་སེང་གེ་, twelfth century), Drotön Dutsi Drak (གྲོ་སྟོན་བདུད་རྩི་གྲགས་, 1153–1232), Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim, Lodöe Tsungme (བློ་གྲོས་མཚུངས་མེད་, thirteenth century), and Kyitön Drakpa Gyaltsen (སྐྱི་སྟོན་གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, thirteenth century).

An outstanding Kadam luminary of his time was Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཐོགས་མེད་བཟང་པོ་, 1295–1369) of Ngulchu, particularly in terms of teaching and practicing bodhicitta. After studying in Sakya, Bodong, and Shalu Monasteries, Tokme Zangpo composed commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>See, for example, Gyalse Tokme Zangpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'grel pa legs bshad rgya mtsho'' (Them bu: Kun bzang stobs rgyas, 1975), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG12289.</ref> and ''The Seven-Point Mind Training'',<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Commentary on the Seven Points of Mind Training'', by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo (Lotsawa House, 2018), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/gyalse-thogme-zangpo/commentary-on-seven-points-mind-training.</ref> but his most significant contribution was ''The Thirty-Seven Bodhisattva Practices'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma''),<ref>See Tokme Zangpo, ''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'' (Sarnath, Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1988), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN15679.</ref> which today ranks among the most popular and influential texts for the study and practice of the path of the bodhisattva. Through these centers and masters, the study and practice of bodhicitta spread widely among the followers of the Kadam school.

The old Kadam tradition gradually declined in the fourteenth century but found a new manifestation in the new Gandenpa school of Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa. An influential monk, literary star, and master meditator, Tsongkhapa gave fresh life to the Kadam school but also departed from some of its old philosophical positions. He composed ''The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment'' (''ལམ་རིམ་ཆེན་མོ་''),<ref>Tsongkhapa, ''Lam rim chen mo'', in Gsung 'bum tsong kha pa (Zhol) (New Delhi: Mongolian Lama Guru Deva, 1978–1979), 13:39–1084, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW635_093BB6.</ref> a medium-length work on the ''lamrim'' (''ལམ་རིམ་འབྲིང་པོ་''), and a condensed work on the ''lamrim'' called ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'' (''ལམ་གཙོ་རྣམ་གསུམ་'').<ref>For an English translation as well as the Tibetan text, see Adam Pearcey, trans., ''Three Principal Aspects of the Path'', by Je Tsongkhapa Lobzang Drakpa (Lotsawa House, 2006, rev. 2012), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/bo/tibetan-masters/tsongkhapa/three-principal-aspects.</ref> He also composed works on ''lojong'', presenting a synthesized and structured theory as well as procedures for practice. By then, the old Kadam school declined as its teachings were incorporated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions, particularly the new Geluk school, which emerged as a reformed version of the Kadam school to carry on its legacies.

Toward the end of Tsongkhapa's life, the main seat of Ganden Monastery was established, followed soon by the founding of Sera and Drepung. These large monastic centers housed thousands of monks and carried out the rigorous study of bodhicitta in the context of their specific college curriculum (''ཡིག་ཆ་''). The authors of the ''yigcha'' such as Sonam Drakpa (བསོད་ནམས་གྲགས་པ་, 1478–1554), Jamyang Zhepa (འཇམ་དབྱངས་བཞད་པ་, 1648–1721), and Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (རྗེ་བཙུན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1469–1544) presented the definition, divisions, and benefits of bodhicitta during their deliberations on various Buddhist philosophical and moral topics. In fact, bodhicitta is the first of the seventy topics they studied as part of their long course on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. However, these monasteries did not include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' or ''The Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' in their curriculum and study of these texts was carried out separately outside of the monastic curriculum.

Besides the authors of the curriculum, the study and practice of bodhicitta in the new Geluk school was also promoted by the successive Dalai Lamas, Paṇchen Lamas, and Ganden Tripas, as well as by the abbots and other geshes of the three main seats (Ganden, Sera, and Drepung) and the two tantric colleges. The First Dalai Lama, Gedun Drup (དགེ་འདུན་གྲུབ་, 1391–1474), and the First Paṇchen Lama, Lobzang Chökyi Gyaltsen (བློ་བཟང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1570–1662), both wrote on ''lamrim'' and ''lojong'' practices. Other inspirational Geluk figures such as Changkya Rolpai Dorje (ལྕང་སྐྱ་རོལ་པའི་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1717–1786) and Könchok Tenpai Drönme (དཀོན་མཆོག་བསྟན་པའི་སྒྲོན་མེ་, 1762–1823) wrote specific works on the cultivation of bodhicitta. Könchok Tenpai Drönme, for example, presents instructions on how to first cultivate relative bodhicitta, then ultimate bodhicitta, and finally how the two work together. In his instructions for practicing the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, he pretends to be in a debate with selfishness, which he refutes using different arguments.

The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Geluk school, like all other traditions in Tibet, went through tumultuous changes beginning in the middle of the twentieth century with the arrival of the People's Liberation Army and continuing through the Cultural Revolution. For over three decades, the study of bodhicitta in the Geluk school went through its darkest chapter, though many masters did excel in the practice of bodhicitta in the face of severe atrocities.

The bodhicitta teachings were soon revived in India through the establishment of monastic centers for education and practice by Tibetans who had fled Tibet following the upheavals of the 1960s and 70s. These efforts were crowned by the enthusiasm and commitment of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as a global paragon of wisdom and compassion. With dozens of books in multiple languages and public sermons attended by tens of thousands of people, he and his students took the teachings of bodhicitta to an unprecedented level by spreading the teachings across the globe. At the same time, the Geluk tradition also actively adopted the transmission of bodhicitta teachings that were passed down from Patrul Rinpoche. These came via two main lines: through Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen (ཁུ་ནུ་བླ་མ་བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1894?–1977) to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, and through Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823–1905), who wrote an extensive commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' based on Patrul's teachings.

=== The Kagyu School ===
The teachings on bodhicitta coming from the Kadam school were also passed down through the Marpa Kagyu school. The focus of Marpa Chökyi Lodrö (མར་པ་ཆོས་ཀྱི་བློ་གྲོས་, 1012–1097) and his disciple Milarepa (Mi la ras pa, 1040–1123) remained on the esoteric tantric teachings that Marpa brought from India, having received them from teachers such as Nāropa and Maitrīpa. However, Gampopa Sonam Rinchen (སྒམ་པོ་པ་བསོད་ནམས་རིན་ཆེན་, 1079–1153), the third founding father of the Kagyu tradition from the Dakpo region of Tibet, combined the esoteric tantric teachings he received from Milarepa with the Kadam teachings he had received before becoming Milarepa's disciple.<ref>The school later took its new name Dakpo Kagyu after him.</ref> Thus, we see an effective pairing of the relative bodhicitta teachings from the Kadam tradition with the teachings on ultimate bodhicitta in the tantric texts and ''mahāmudrā'' transmission.

This synthesis by Gampopa is best seen in ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'' (''དམ་ཆོས་ཡིད་བཞིན་ནོར་བུ་ཐར་པ་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་རྒྱན་''), which condenses the entire path to buddhahood into six topics, which he puts in the following verse:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The buddha-nature is the cause,
Precious and supreme human body, the support,
The virtuous master is the agent,
And his instructions, the expedient technique.
The result is the body of the perfect Buddha,
Who engages in actions for the world with no thought.<ref>རྒྱུ་ནི་བདེ་གཤེགས་སྙིང་པོ་སྟེ། །རྟེན་ནི་མི་ལུས་རིན་ཆེན་མཆོག །རྐྱེན་ནི་དགེ་བའི་བཤེས་གཉེན་ཡིན། །ཐབས་ནི་དེ་ཡི་གདམས་ངག་སྟེ། །འབྲས་བུ་རྫོགས་སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་སྐུ། །ཕྲིན་ལས་རྟོག་མེད་འགྲོ་དོན་མཛད། ། Gampopa Sonam Rinchen, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'' (Thimphu: KMT, 2005), 3.</ref>
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Gampopa discusses both relative and ultimate bodhicitta in some detail in this work, stating concisely that the objects of relative bodhicitta are the state of enlightenment and sentient beings, and that ultimate bodhicitta is the realization of emptiness endowed with compassion that is clear, unperturbed, and free from mental elaborations.<ref>Gampopa, ''Dam chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po che'i rgyan'', 133 and 137.</ref> He then presents the procedures to obtain the bodhisattva vow, the precepts to follow, the definition and types of bodhicitta, and a detailed treatment of the six perfections as applied bodhicitta. This work would remain a core text for the study and practice of bodhicitta in the Dakpo Kagyu tradition.

The four chief disciples of Gampopa started the four Kagyu schools and spread the teachings on bodhicitta. They include the aforementioned Pakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, who founded the Pakdru Kagyu; Barompa Darma Wangchuk (འབའ་རོམ་པ་དར་མ་དབང་ཕྱུག་, 1127–1199/1200), who established the Barom Kagyu; the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, who established the Karma Kagyu; and Zhang Yudrakpa (ཞང་གཡུ་བྲག་པ་, 1123–1193), who established the Tselpa Kagyu. Pakmodrupa is said to have viewed himself as a servant of all sentient beings and to have lived a life committed to strict morality and service to others. He wrote several works on bodhicitta, including a commentary on Candragomin's ''Twenty Verses on Bodhisattva Vows''<ref>Phakmodrupa Dorje Gyalpo, ''Sdom pa nyi shu pa'i 'grel pa bzhugs pa'i dbu phyogs'', in Gsung 'bum phag mo gru pa rdo rje rgyal po (bris ma), (ga), 27–48, Buddhist Digital Resource Center (BDRC), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG15061_A5D6A7.</ref> and a treatise entitled ''Entering the Way of the Bodhisattva'', not to be confused with Śāntideva's work, although they have the same title in Tibetan. In another text called ''The Great Pearl Garland'' (''སེམས་བསྐྱེད་མུ་ཏིག་ཕྲེང་ཆེན་''), he wrote in praise of bodhicitta:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Other intentions and precepts are like well-cooked food but thoughts and precepts concerning bodhicitta are like the celestial cake with a hundred tastes. The mass of other merits is like a ruler from a castle, while bodhicitta is like the universal monarch ruling over all gods and men. The merit accrued from other virtues is like the light of a firefly, while the merit of bodhicitta is like the blazing disc of the sun.<ref>Pakmodrupa, ''Sems bskyed mu tig phreng chen'', in Gsung 'bum rdo rje rgyal po (N.p: N.p, 1998), 1:571–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23860_764630.</ref>
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Pakmodrupa's eight chief disciples took the teachings further by founding eight subschools of the Pakdru Kagyu. Among them are figures such as Jikten Gönpo Rinchen Pal (འཇིག་རྟེན་མགོན་པོ་རིན་ཆེན་དཔལ་, 1143–1217), who founded the Drikung Kagyu, Lingrepa Pema Dorje (གླིང་རས་པ་པདྨ་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1128–1188), whose disciple Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (གཙང་པ་རྒྱ་རས་ཡེ་ཤེས་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1161–1211) founded the Drukpa Kagyu, and Taklungtangpa Tashi Pal (སྟག་ལུང་ཐང་པ་བཀྲ་ཤིས་དཔལ་, 1142–1209/1210). Jikten Gönpo established Drikung Thil, had a large following, and also wrote many texts on the cultivation of bodhicitta. ''The Experiential Hymns on the Fivefold Mahāmudrā'' (''ཕྱག་རྒྱ་ཆེན་པོ་ལྔ་ལྡན་གྱི་རྟོགས་པའི་མགུར་'') is perhaps the most well-known work. Only five verses, it starts with the following:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If the steed of love and compassion
Does not run for the benefit of others,
It will not be rewarded in the assembly of gods and humans.
Attend, therefore, to the preliminaries.<ref>བྱམས་དང་སྙིང་རྗེའི་རྟ་ཕོ་ལ། །གཞན་ཕན་གི་དཀྱུས་ཐོག་མ་བཅད་ན། །ཁྲོམ་ལྷ་མིའི་འོར་ཆེ་མི་འབྱུང་བས། །སེམས་སྔོན་འགྲོ་འདི་ལ་ནན་ཏན་མཛོད།།. See Karma Phuntsho, trans., ''Jikten Sumgön's Fivefold Path of Mahāmudrā'' (''Phyag rgya chen po lnga ldan rtogs pa'i mgur''), Buddha-Nature: A Tsadra Foundation Project, recent essays, posted October 2021, https://buddhanature.tsadra.org/index.php/Recent_Essays/Post-50.</ref>
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Like Jikten Gönpo, Tsangpa Gyare, the founder of the Drukpa Kagyu, became a highly influential Kagyu master and spread the teachings on bodhicitta widely. He is said to have sent many waves of students across the Himalayas so that the Drukpa Kagyu teachings could spread across vast distances—as far as a vulture can fly in eighteen days. It has been said in a highly exaggerated claim that half of humanity are followers of the Drukpa Kagyu tradition, half of them paupers, and half of the paupers accomplished saints. The upper Drukpas, went another panegyrical claim, are as many as stars in the sky, the lower Drukpas are as many as the particles of dust on the earth, and the middle Drukpa tradition has 2500 leading hierarchs who are entitled to parasols over their head. No doubt, the teachings on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta spread widely through the works of Tsangpa Gyare and his followers. Tsangpa Gyare remarked in one of his pieces of advice:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If bodhicitta is not cultivated, all meritorious activities, like an offering of flour to demons will throw one to the currents of worldly concerns.<ref>བྱང་སེམས་རྒྱུད་ལ་མ་སྐྱེས་ན། །བསོད་ནམས་བདུད་ཀྱི་ཕྱེ་གཏོར་འདིས། །ཆོས་བརྒྱད་ཆུ་ལ་བསྐུར་ཉེན་གདའ། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''<i>'</i>Gro mgon rin po che's gsung mgur gyi rim pa'', in 'Gro ba’i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 2b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23782_A9B6DF.</ref>
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"If one had compassion like a shepherd," he said, "one would care for both the good and bad."<ref>སྙིང་རྗེ་ལུག་རྫི་འདྲ་ན་བཟང་ངན་མེད་པར་བསྐྱང་སྟེ་མཆི། ། Tsangpa Gyare, ''Tsogs chos mno ‘khor ma che ba'', in 'Gro ba'i mgon po chos rje gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje mchog gi gsum 'bum (New Delhi: Sherab Gyeltsen, 1998), fol. 9b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN2232_A2AF3F.</ref>

A leading disciple of Gampopa was Dusum Khyenpa, who established a lineage that became highly influential in Tibetan religion and politics. He was later recognized as the First Karmapa. Dusum Khyenpa founded Tsurphu Monastery in Tibet and had a great following. He taught that Dharma is about benefiting sentient beings and emphasized the importance of loving-kindness and compassion as part of the Mahāyāna path. But it was his successors who excelled in the scholarship on bodhicitta theory and practice. The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (ཀརྨ་པཀྵི་, 1204–1283), mentioned bodhicitta in his writings, but Rangjung Dorje (རང་བྱུང་རྡོ་རྗེ་, 1284–1339 ), the Third Karmapa, wrote many important works on ultimate bodhicitta. These included books on the perfection of wisdom, which covered the empty aspect of ultimate bodhicitta, and books on buddha-nature, which covered the luminous aspect of ultimate bodhicitta.

Among the seventeen Karmapas who have become heads of the Kamtsang Kagyu school so far, the Eighth Karmapa, Mikyö Dorje, wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'' and ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' in which he discusses bodhicitta. He also composed many other short manuals and instructions for bodhicitta practice such as ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang sems kyi khrid'', In Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa: 2004), 19:383–98, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_5E5C5A.</ref> ''Cultivation of Bodhicitta in One Night'',<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Byang chub kyi sems sgom tshul zhag gcig ma'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:331–34, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_DE0419.</ref> and ''Instructions for Mind Training''.<ref>Mikyö Dorje, ''Blo sbyong gi khrid'', in Gsung 'bum mi bskyod rdo rje (Lhasa, 2004), 19:281–96, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8039_C222BF.</ref> In ''The Instructions for Bodhicitta'', he presents guidance on how to generate bodhicitta using a dialogue between Maitreya and Maitrīyogi as the main text. In it, he also gives instructions on how to combine the cultivation of bodhicitta with breathing. Mikyö Dorje also wrote the liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka, Cittamātra, and Vajrayāna traditions.

Another major author on bodhicitta belonging to the Kamtshang Kagyu subschool was Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (དཔའ་བོ་གཙུག་ལག་ཕྲེང་བ་, 1504–1564), a historian and commentator on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Besides his commentary on this classical text on bodhicitta, he also authored liturgies for taking the bodhisattva vows for both relative and ultimate bodhicitta and instructions on how to turn both positive and negative life experiences into opportunities for mind training.

The sixteenth century saw another major Kagyu figure belonging to the Drukpa Kagyu subschool. Pema Karpo (པདྨ་དཀར་པོ་, 1527–1592), the Fourth Drukchen of the Drukpa Kagyu school, wrote commentaries on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''<ref>Pema Karpo, ''Spyod 'jug gi 'bru 'grel dbu ma'i lam gyi sgron ma'' (Nepal: Shree Gautam Buddha Vihara, 2017), https://dharmacloud.tsadra.org/book/a-lamp-for-the-middle-way/.</ref> and ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''. He also composed a treatise on the three vows, the second chapter of which deals with the bodhisattva vow and precepts. He also wrote texts related to the lamrim stages of the path to enlightenment and many works on ''mahāmudrā'', which deal with the ultimate form of bodhicitta.

In the nineteenth century, a major Kagyu figure to champion all traditions of Tibetan Buddhist teachings, including the study and practice of bodhicitta, was Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (1813–1899). As a leading promoter of the Rime ecumenical movement in eastern Tibet alongside his teacher and colleague Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820-1892), Kongtrul produced the five great treasuries, including The Treasury of Kagyu Tantras (བཀའ་བརྒྱུད་སྔགས་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Revealed Treasures (རིན་ཆེན་གཏེར་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Instructions (གདམས་ངག་མཛོད་), The Treasury of Knowledge (ཤེས་བྱ་ཀུན་ཁྱབ་མཛོད་), and The Treasury of Extensive Teachings (རྒྱ་ཆེན་བཀའ་མཛོད་). While the first three are mainly compilations of existing teachings, Kongtrul added many supplements to enrich the collections. In the Treasury of Instructions, he put together the rare and important meditation instructions of all major Tibetan Buddhist transmissions and also composed many instructions and liturgies himself. A good example of this is his composition of the liturgy to take the bodhisattva vow according to the Mādhyamaka tradition as received via Śāntideva. The two last collections mainly consist of his own encyclopedic writings and include his commentary on Chekawa Yeshe Dorje's ''Seven Points of Mind Training'' and his ''Aspirational Prayer for Mind Training''.

The last great Kagyupa/Nyingmapa promoter of bodhicitta in India in the twentieth century was Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, although he was also more aligned to the Rime ecumenical tradition than a specific sect. Born in North India with deep knowledge of its languages and cultures, and trained in Tibet before Buddhism's decline there, Khunu Rinpoche was uniquely positioned to preserve and transmit bodhicitta teachings during Tibet's takeover by the People's Liberation Army and the subsequent refugee exodus. At such a critical moment, Khunu Rinpoche passed on the profound teachings on bodhicitta to his students, the most eminent among them being the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, who emerged as the unparalleled paragon of bodhicitta study and practice in modern times. Khunu Rinpoche also composed his very deep and poetic treatise on bodhicitta entitled ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta''.<ref>See Khunu Lama, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Tibetan Cultural Printing Press, n.d), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ369499.</ref>

Around the same time, another prominent Kagyu master to promote bodhicitta through his writings was Gedun Rinchen (དགེ་འདུན་རིན་ཆེན་, 1926–1997), the sixty-ninth Je Khenpo, or Chief Abbot, of Bhutan. Gedun Rinchen wrote commentaries on ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', notes on ''The Way of the Bodisattva'', and several short works on the cultivation of both relative and ultimate bodhicitta. He is perhaps the first Bhutanese author to also write extensively on topics related to bodhicitta, although several other Bhutanese would do so in the twenty-first century. Today, traditional scholarship on bodhicitta among the Kagyu school thrives with an unprecedented number of scholars and masters writing and teaching both in the Himalayan Buddhist areas and in the diaspora.

=== The Sakya School ===
The Sakya school was founded by Khön Könchok Gyalpo (དཀོན་མཆོག་རྒྱལ་པོ་, 1034–1102) with the establishment of Sakya center in the Tsang region of Tibet in 1073. In subsequent generations, the school evolved to become renowned for their scholarship and their dedicated practice of the Buddhist teachings in general and the teachings on the Path and Result in particular. This was also true with regard to their study and practice of bodhicitta. According to the tradition, Sachen Kunga Nyingpo (ས་ཆེན་ཀུན་དགའ་སྙིང་པོ་, 1092–1158), the son of Könchok Gyalpo and the first of the five eminent ancestors of Sakya, is said to have had a vision of Mañjuśrī in which he received the teachings known as ''Parting from the Four Attachments'' (''ཞེན་པ་བཞི་བྲལ་'').<ref>See Ngor pa dpon slob blo gter dbang po, ed., ''Zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Rgyud sde kun btus (glog klad par ma) (Kathmandu: Sachen International, Guru Lama, 2004), 23:727–30, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW27883_DDE525.</ref> The teaching went as follows:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If you are attached to this life, you are not a true spiritual practitioner;
If you are attached to saṃsāra, you have no renunciation;
If you are attached to your own self-interest, you have no bodhicitta;
If there is grasping, you do not have the View.<ref>Rigpa Translations, trans., ''Instruction on Parting from the Four Attachments'', by Jetsün Drakpa Gyaltsen (Lotsawa House, 2011), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/jetsun-drakpa-gyaltsen/parting-four-attachments.</ref>
}}
The third point on parting from the attachment to self-interest underscored the importance of the practice of bodhicitta and compassion in the Sakya spiritual practice. A generation after him, his son Sonam Tsemo (བསོད་ནམས་རྩེ་མོ་, 1142–1182), who got trained at Sangpu Neutok under the illustrious scholar Chapa Chökyi Senge, carried on the scholarly tradition of Sakya and composed a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i 'grel pa'', in ''<i>'</i>Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung'', ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po (Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 68:20–209, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_A992FA.</ref> The younger son, Drakpa Gyaltsen (གྲགས་པ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1147–1216), carried on the tradition and composed a summary of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum, reprinted from a set of Derge Parkhang woodblocks (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992-1993), 9:553–91, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_21D2B6.</ref> instructions on ''Parting from the Four Attachments'',<ref>See ''Rje btsun grags pa rgyal mtshan gyis mdzad pa'i zhen pa bzhi bral'', in Gdams ngag mdzod (Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1979–1981), 6:310–14, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20877_835B23.</ref> a manual for taking the refuge and bodhisattva vows,<ref>See ''Chos spyod rin chen phreng ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:511–46, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_BAE593.</ref> and an exegesis on ''The Twenty Verses on the Bodhisattva Vow''.<ref>See Sachen Kunga Nyingpo and Jetsun Drakpa Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems dpa'i sdom pa gsal bar ston pa shlo ka nyi shu pa'i rnam par bshad pa'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 9:547–604, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_4967BB.</ref>

The greatest scholar among the five sublime ancestors of Sakya, however, was Ngawang Kunga Gyaltsen, who is popularly known as Sakya Paṇḍita or Sakya Paṇchen (ས་སྐྱ་པཎྜི་ཏ་, 1182–1251). A scholar of exceptional caliber, Sakya Paṇḍita composed many original works, some of which discuss bodhicitta. These include ''Distinguishing the Three Vows'' (''སྡོམ་གསུམ་རབ་དབྱེ་''),<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:1–96, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' (''ཐུབ་པའི་དགོངས་པ་རབ་ཏུ་གསལ་བ་''),<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:9–206, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> a liturgy for taking the bodhisattva vow, and a collection of scriptural citations to substantiate the points related to bodhicitta.<ref>See ''Dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi cho ga'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:467–503, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_1F51EB and ''Byang chub kyi mchog tu sems bskyed pa'i cho ga'i lung sbyor'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Kathmandu: Sachen International, 2006), 11:503–24, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1017151_A6BF74.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita bestowed the bodhisattva vow according to the Middle Way tradition and followed this with teachings on ''The Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' so that one's bodhicitta would not decrease but would increase. Yet, it was generally his critical and polemical discourses on both relative and ultimate bodhicitta that often attracted the greatest attention from scholars and readers. For instance, he argued that not all bodhisattva aspiration prayers would come true, for if they did, bodhisattvas would be constantly inflicted by the pain and suffering that they prayed would fall on them. However, he accepted the essential role that bodhicitta played in Buddhist soteriology. "If one mishandles the crux of bodhicitta, other dharma cannot make one fully enlightened,"<ref>བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་གནད་འཆུགས་ན། །ཆོས་གཞན་གྱིས་ནི་འཚང་མི་རྒྱ། ། ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:33, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref> he argued. Furthermore, he writes,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If one has bodhicitta and skill in means,
Even if one indulges in the five sensory objects,
Such an act becomes an act of great virtue for a bodhisattva.
It is considered as sin by the hearers.<ref>འདོད་པའི་ཡོན་ཏན་ལྔར་སྤྱོད་ཀྱང་། །ཐབས་མཁས་བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ལྡན་ན། །རྒྱལ་སྲས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་དགེ་ཆེན་ཡིན། །ཉན་ཐོས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་སྡིག་པར་གསུངས། ། See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 12:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_883F35.</ref>
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In his ''Clarification of the Intent of the Sage'' and the liturgy on the bodhisattva vow, he presents a brief historical account of the two main Mahāyāna traditions, a clear account of bodhicitta and its types, the ritual for receiving the bodhisattva vow, and the precepts that follow.<ref>See ''Thub pa'i dgongs pa rab tu gsal ba'', in Sa skya bka' 'bum (Dehra Dun: Sakya Center, 1992–1993), 10:18, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22271_925536.</ref> Sakya Paṇḍita was succeeded by his nephew Chögyal Pakpa (ཆོས་རྒྱལ་འཕགས་པ་, 1235–1280), who followed his uncle to China and later became the court priest and tutor of Kubilai Khan. Chögyal Pakpa is said to have given the bodhicitta vow to large gatherings of 70,000 people during the Chumik convention in 1270 and to have also administered it to his Mongol disciples in the Yuan court.

The Sakya school, put in place by the five great masters, continued to grow through the works of many great figures on the Tibetan intellectual scene and the many monasteries and centers they founded. In the generation after Chögyal Pakpa, we see the rise of Butön Rinchen Drub (བུ་སྟོན་རིན་ཆེན་གྲུབ་, 1290–1364), a Sakya scholar who became the head of Shalu Monastery and was also responsible for the compilation of the first Kangyur and Tengyur canons, today referred to as the Old Narthang Kangyur and Tengyur. Butön left behind a prodigious oeuvre that includes a commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'',<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa byang chub kyi sems gsal bar byed pa zla ba'i 'od zer'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19:193–614, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_11394D.</ref> a summary of it,<ref>See ''Byang chub sems dpa'i spyod pa la 'jug pa'i bsdus don'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 19: 147–92, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_B2DED5.</ref> and a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''.<ref>''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rgya cher bshad pa lung gi snye ma'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (zhol par ma ldi lir bskyar par brgyab pa), ed. Lokesh Chandra (New Delhi: International Academy Of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 18:13–740, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_850C4C</ref> He also wrote one of the earliest and elaborate treatises on buddha-nature<ref>See, for example, ''Bde gshegs snying po gsal ba'i rgyan'', in Gsung 'bum rin chen grub (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–1971), 20:1–78, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22106_9E60DB.</ref> and numerous texts on Vajrayāna, covering ultimate bodhicitta.

An influential contemporary of Butön with a strong connection to the Sakya school was Dölpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (དོལ་པོ་པ་ཤེས་རབ་རྒྱལ་མཚན་, 1292–1361). Initially associated with the Sakya school, Dölpopa undertook Kālacakra practice at Jomonang center, which eventually led him to his exposition of the philosophy of ''zhentong'' (''གཞན་སྟོང་''), or other emptiness. He wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan gyi rnam bshad mdo'i don bde blag tu rtogs pa'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon, 1990s?), 5:245–620, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_F64381.</ref> and original works such as ''The Mountain Dharma: Ocean of Definitive Meaning''<ref>See ''Ri chos nges don rgya mtsho zhes bya ba mthar thug thun mong ma yin pa'i man ngag'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 3:191–739, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_CC2A89.</ref> and ''The Fourth Council'',<ref>See ''Bka' bsdu bzhi pa'i don bstan rtsis chen po'', in Gsung 'bum dol po pa shes rab rgyal mtshan ('Dzam thang: 'Dzam thang dgon), 6:167–204, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW21208_A37792.</ref> which elaborate an understanding of ultimate bodhicitta which is starkly different from the mainstream Sakya position. Dölpopa and his writings, which were carried on by the Jonang school, left behind a significant impact on Tibetan Buddhist scholarship and practice.

In the fourteenth century, the Sakya school produced two outstanding scholars who both got trained at Sangpu Neutok. The first was Yaktön Sangye Pal (གཡག་སྟོན་སངས་རྒྱས་དཔལ་, 1350–1414), one of the six scholars known as the Six Ornaments of Tibet who wrote a commentary on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>See ''Sher phyin mngon rtogs rgyan rtsa ba dang 'grel pa (Khreng tu'u: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1994), http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW20485.</ref> but did not write any independent work on bodhicitta. The second scholar, Rongtön Sheja Kunrik (1367–1449), in contrast, wrote commentaries on major Indian treatises, including ''The Ornament of Direct Realization''<ref>Rongtön Sheja Kunrik, ''Mngon rtogs rgyan gyi 'grel pa'i rnam bshad tshig don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 3:3–774, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_96A5D5.</ref> and ''Introduction to the Middle Way''.<ref>''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don rnam nges'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 6:383–752, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_ACD85B.</ref> He also composed many short works on the practice of relative and ultimate bodhicitta, including a short text containing instructions on how to put ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into practice.<ref>See ''Spyod 'jug sgom rim rin chen rgyan phreng'', in Gsung 'bum shes bya kun rig (Skye dgu mdo: Gangs ljongs rig rgyan gsung rab par khang, 2004), 1:508–10, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW28942_876785.</ref>

Scholastic and polemical writings in the Sakya school reached unprecedented heights during the time of Rongtön's students, which included three of the most renowned scholars of their time—Taktsang Sherab Rinchen (སྟག་ཚང་ཤེས་རབ་རིན་ཆེན་, 1405–1477), Śākya Chokden (ཤཱཀྱ་མཆོག་ལྡན་, 1428–1507), and Gorampa Sönam Senge (གོ་རམས་པ་བསོད་ནམས་སེང་གེ་, 1429–1489). Taktsang Sherab Rinchen composed two works on the sciences and philosophical tenet systems and became a vocal critic of Tsongkhapa’s understanding of emptiness but did not write anything significant on bodhicitta. Śākya Chokden wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i mdo dang mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel dang bcas pa'i lus dang yan lag rgyas par bshad pa lung don rgya mtsho'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 3:7–192, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_B4FF1A.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See ''Dbu ma 'jug pa'i rnam bshad nges don gnad kyi ṭī ka'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 5:291–486, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_D11306.</ref> and on Sakya Paṇḍita's ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>See ''Sdom gsum rab dbye'i le'u gsum pa rig 'dzin sdom pa'i skabs kyi 'bel gtam rnam par nges pa legs bshad gser gyi thur ma'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 7:7–244, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_E519EB.</ref> He also wrote a commentary on ''Mind Training in Eight Verses'' by Langri Thangpa.<ref>Shākya Chokden, ''Blo sbyong tshig rkang brgyad pa'i rnam bshad don gsum rab tu gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum shākya mchog ldan (Kathmandu, Nepal: Sachen International Guru Lama, 2006), 23:57–72, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW00EGS1016899_C4DA34.</ref> An independent thinker, Śākya Chokden introduced a new interpretation of buddha-nature, and his philosophical interpretation often differed from early Sakya masters. Because of this, his colleague Gorampa Sönam Senge, a sharp commentator and debater, became the main authority who established and carried on the Sakya philosophical tradition. Like his teacher Rongtön and his colleague Śākya Chokden, Gorampa wrote commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa'i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa'i rgyan 'grel pa dang bcas pa'i dka' ba'i gnas rnam par bshad pa yum don rab gsal'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 6:7–756, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_B6315B.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Dbu ma la 'jug pa'i dkyus kyi sa bcad pa dang gzhung so so'i dka' ba'i gnas la dpyad pa lta ba ngan sel'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 5:479–758, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_73D3D6.</ref> and also ''Distinguishing the Three Vows''.<ref>Sönam Senge, ''Sdom pa gsum gyi rab tu dbye ba'i rnam bshad rgyal ba'i gsung rab kyi dgongs pa gsal ba'', in Gsung 'bum bsod nams seng ge (Dkar mdzes bod rigs rang skyong khul sde dge rdzong rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling: Rdzong sar khams bye'i slob gling, 2004–2014), 9:7–436, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD1725_6EA702.</ref> Gorampa, Śākya Chokden, and Taktsang Sherab Rinchen would become known as Goshāktaksum, a trio of Sakya scholars who were among the harshest critics of Tsongkhapa and his Geluk school of thought.

Another prolific scholar around this time, though not directly related to Sakya, was Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal (བོ་དོང་པཎ་ཆེན་ཕྱོགས་ལས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་, 1376–1451). Chokle Namgyal left behind perhaps the largest collection of writings in Tibet, including commentaries on ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Dpal de kho na nyid 'dus pa'i rgya mtsho chen po las phar phyin gyi dka' 'grel lung gi snye ma'', in Bo dong phyogs las rnam rgyal gyi gsung 'bum gsar rnyed skor, Par gzhi dang po (Pe cin: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2009), 2:5–386, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1PD97485_3FDD00.</ref> ''Introduction to the Middle Way'',<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, Gsung 'bum phyogs las rnam rgyal (New Delhi: Tibet House, 1969–1981), vol. 17, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22103_5D3941.</ref> and an exegetical commentary on ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.<ref>See Bodong Paṇchen Chokle Namgyal, ''Spyod 'jug 'grel pa rab tu gsal ba'', in 'Phags yul rgyan drug mchog gnyis kyi zhal lung, ed. Thub bstan smon lam and Shes rab bzang po, Par gzhi dang po (Lha sa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 2015), 73:221–560, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW3CN3408_6A3765.</ref> Scholarship on bodhicitta thrived with the rise of scholasticism from the fourteenth century. The theory of bodhicitta was discussed as the first of the seventy topics covered in ''The Ornament of Direct Realization'', and the practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya tradition took place through the bodhisattva vow and through the instruction on ''Parting from the Four Attachments''. The study and practice of bodhicitta in the Sakya school especially flourished and would culminate in the works of masters such as Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo, the Sakya figure who rose to be the leading advocate of the Rime ecumenical movement in the nineteenth century. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo bequeathed an enormous collection of writings that included many dozens of texts on bodhicitta. While he did not write commentaries on the main classical texts as other scholarly Sakya masters did, he composed many works concerning the practice of bodhicitta in the form of practical instructions, liturgies, and historical accounts.

== The Spread of Bodhicitta Teachings beyond Asia ==
Although some early cultural transmissions and interactions between Asia and the West occurred in ancient times, the proper transmission of Buddhism, particularly Mahāyāna teachings, to the West has taken place only since the early twentieth century. The general trend of globalization facilitated by the advancement in communication technology and the travel industry, political upheavals such as World War II and the Korean War, and the rise of communism in China, Vietnam, and Tibet all led to the migration of people from Mahāyāna countries in Asia to the West and to the spread of bodhicitta teachings. Western interest in Buddhist cultures was at first largely driven by cultural curiosity and academic interest, often motivated by a colonial agenda. However, this changed by the middle of the twentieth century with the significant growth of serious interest in Eastern spirituality, the introduction of Buddhist Studies in Western universities as part of religious and theological studies, and the rise of Dharma centers for practicing Buddhists.

The initial transmission of Mahāyāna teachings to the West began with the introduction of Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism from the beginning of the twentieth century. Figures such as Soyen Shaku (1860–1919) and Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki (1870–1966) brought Zen Buddhism and the Mahāyāna teachings from the Sino-Japanese tradition, while explorer-writers such as Evans Wentz (1878–1965) and Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969) introduced the West to Tibetan Buddhism. These were followed by a rising number of scholars in leading academic institutions, many of whom undertook sustained and in-depth study of Mahāyāna Buddhism. At the same time, numerous Asian Buddhist teachers from Tibet and East Asia started to establish Dharma centers, particularly in Europe and North America, where people with an interest in Buddhism took up their spiritual practice. Such a diffusion of Mahāyāna Buddhism in general and teachings on bodhicitta in particular was further enhanced by the rising popularity of figures such as the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987).

One way to gauge the spread of the teachings on bodhicitta is to look at the transmission of the main classics on bodhicitta—namely, Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' and ''The Compendium of Training''. Early translations of these two works, which gained much popularity in India soon after their composition in the eighth century, appeared in Tibetan and Chinese in the ninth and tenth centuries respectively. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' was initially translated into Tibetan by Kawa Paltsek in the eighth century and into Chinese by Tiān Xīzāi (d.1000) in 985 CE. The Tibetan translation went through subsequent revisions at least twice in the eleventh and twelfth centuries by Lotsāwa Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055) and Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) respectively. The text was then translated into Mongolian by Čosgi Odser (ཆོས་ཀྱི་འོད་ཟེར་, fl. 1305–1321) in 1305. ''The Compendium of Training'' was translated into Tibetan by Yeshe De (eighth century) and later revised by Ngok Loden Sherab. It was translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa in the first half of the eleventh century.

In the centuries after their composition, both of these texts appear to have spread quickly beyond North India to places such as Kashmir and Kathmandu. For example, the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project has found forty-one manuscripts related to ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', including twelve palm-leaf manuscripts, and the earliest one (located in Kathmandu) dated to 1180 CE. The only existing Sanskrit manuscript of ''The Compendium of Training'', now housed in Cambridge University Library, was also acquired from Kathmandu.

Although these texts attracted much attention in India, Kashmir, Nepal, Tibet, Mongolia, and other traditional Buddhist areas, their transmission to the West occurred only around the beginning of the twentieth century. The first publication of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' in the Western world took place in Russia in 1889 when Ivan P. Minayev reviewed and published the Sanskrit text using the manuscript brought by Brian Houghton Hodgson from Kathmandu.<ref>I. P. Minayev, "La doctrine du salut dans le Bouddhisme posterieur," ''Zapiski'', no. 4 (1889).</ref> Similarly, ''The Compendium of Training'' was first published through the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1902 by Cecil Bendall, who used the Sanskrit manuscript obtained by Daniel Wright in 1875 from Kathmandu.<ref>Cecil Bendall, ed., ''Çikshāsamuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhistic Teaching Compiled by Çāntideva Chiefly from Earlier Mahāyāna-Sūtras'' (St Pétersburg: Commissionaires de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences, 1902), xxiv.</ref> The first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into a European language was undertaken by Louis de la Vallée Poussin, who translated the text in stages from 1892 onward and completed it in 1907. This was followed by five different translations into French in the twentieth century. Lionel David Barnett produced the first translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' into English in 1909, although he only did an abridged version. The first complete English translation of the verses appears to have been carried out by Marion Matics.<ref>Marion Leonidas Matics, ''Entering the Path of Enlightenment: The Bodhicaryāvatāra of the Buddhist Poet Śāntideva'' (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970).</ref> Since then, there have been some seventeen different English translations of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', and writings on this text continue to grow. It is today found in over a dozen European languages. It was also translated into Japanese by Ekai Kawaguchi (1866–1945) and published in 1921, and translations can be found in many other Asian languages.

Śāntideva’s other main work, ''The Compendium of Training'', was edited and published for the first time in the West by Cecil Bendell in 1902. He also started the translation, but it was finished by W. H. D. Rouse and published in 1922. As regards the translation of ''The Compendium of Training'' into other languages, Moritz Winternitz produced an incomplete translation by rendering some excerpts and quotes into German in 1930. Around this same time, Gisho Nakano rendered it into modern Japanese from the Chinese version. The latest and most popular translation of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' today is the one by the Padmakara Translation Group and that of ''The Compendium of Training'' is the one by Charles Goodman.

Through these academic and religious translations and numerous other writings on bodhicitta, the teachings and practice of bodhicitta have today spread widely in many continents. Yet, the biggest impetus for the promotion of bodhicitta across the world has come from the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), an ardent promoter of bodhicitta doctrine and practice. Throughout the decades following the exodus of Tibetans into exile in 1959, the Dalai Lama has tirelessly taught and written about bodhicitta and spread the teachings to large global audiences. Interest in Tibetan Buddhism in general and the bodhicitta teachings has grown rapidly as these teachings, which were previously inaccessible to foreigners, have become easily available.

Moreover, the teachings on bodhicitta and the bodhisattva ideal continue to appeal to modern progressive sensibilities, leading to their adoption and application even beyond religious circles. With influential leaders such as the Dalai Lama promoting these ideas, the rich tradition of bodhicitta—the way of wisdom and compassion—continues to spread in different parts of the world in the twenty-first century in a sustained effort to curb materialism, individualism, egocentricity, aggression, and environmental degradation, which are rampant in the world. This web resource contains extensive materials on bodhicitta in one place, launching a new chapter in the history of bodhicitta teachings. It provides timely support to help students and practitioners easily enhance their knowledge, deepen their understanding, and strengthen their practice.
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Practice/Bodhicitta in Practice

2026-08-25T14:39:57Z

KPhuntsho:

{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|sub-theme=Bodhicitta in Practice
|watermark=Practice
|TermTopics=Debate; Compassion; Arousing Bodhicitta; Protecting Bodhicitta; Increasing Bodhicitta; Six Perfections; Tonglen; Aspirational Bodhicitta; Active Bodhicitta; Equanimity; Equalizing and Exchanging Self and Others; Seven-Point Instructions of Cause and Effect; Four Immeasurables
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|image=File:TKP-Pawo-Print-6TKP10751.web .jpg
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|text=Bodhicitta—the altruistic intention to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all beings—is essential in Mahāyāna Buddhist practice. It is regarded as the defining motivation that transforms any spiritual activity into a genuine Mahāyāna path. Without bodhicitta, progress toward buddhahood is considered impossible. Cultivating bodhicitta involves reflection, meditation, ethical conduct, and guidance from qualified teachers, and is formalized through the bodhisattva vow. Its continual practice is seen as the foundation and driving force for all Mahāyāna spiritual development.
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<h2>[[The Bodhicitta Prayer]]</h2>
<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་རིན་པོ་ཆེ། །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">May the sublime and precious bodhicitta</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">མ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས་སྐྱེས་གྱུར་ཅིག །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">Arise in those in whom it has not arisen.</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">སྐྱེས་པ་ཉམས་པ་མེད་པར་ཡང་། །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">Where it has arisen, may it never decline</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">གོང་ནས་གོང་དུ་འཕེལ་བར་ཤོག །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">But grow and flourish more and more.</div>

<h2>Introduction</h2>

The application of bodhicitta in practice is central to the Mahāyāna pursuit of full enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. According to Mahāyāna masters, bodhicitta is a prerequisite for a practice or path to qualify as a Mahāyāna path leading to the state of a fully awakened buddha. Only when the practice is motivated or informed by bodhicitta (བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་རྩིས་ཟིན་པ་) can it be considered as a bona fide part of the Mahāyāna path. Thus, the masters strongly recommend the cultivation of the altruistic thought of bodhicitta before beginning any project or activity. This is because, in the Buddhist system, the moral value of an action is determined by the quality of intention or the state of the mind.

Buddhist masters teach that mind can be in any of these three states:
#A virtuous state with positive thoughts and emotions, such as thirst for knowledge, devotion, compassion, love, etc.
#A nonvirtuous state with negative thoughts and emotions, such as arrogance, hatred, jealousy, etc.
#A neutral state with neither positive nor negative states of mind.

Furthermore, the virtuous mind can be of three types:
#An inferior mind wishing happiness and well-being in this mundane world.
#A middling mind wishing a higher state of lasting happiness, fulfillment, and freedom beyond the ordinary world.
#A superior mind wishing a higher state of lasting happiness for all sentient beings.

This last superior mind is bodhicitta and the one recommended by the Mahāyāna masters before beginning any project or activity.

Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, a twentieth-century teacher of bodhicitta, thus writes in ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta'' (བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་བསྟོད་པ་རིན་ཆེན་སྒྲོན་མ།):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Should one launch something, launch with bodhicitta.
Should one think of something, think of bodhicitta.
Should one analyze something, analyze with bodhicitta.
Should one examine something, examine with bodhicitta. (v. 98)<ref>''brtsam na byang chub sems las brtsam''// ''bsam na byang chub sems nyid bsam''// ''dpyad na byang chub sems su dpyad''// ''brtag na byang chub sems la brtag''//. Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Dga' ldan pho brang, 2018), 29, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8LS66303.</ref>
}}
Patrul Rinpoche, a paragon of bodhicitta practice in nineteenth-century Tibet, also proclaimed in his ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (བསྐལ་མང་གོང་ནས་སོགས།):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood. (v. 6)<ref>''yod na sangs rgyas sgrub la des chog cing''/ /''med na sangs rgyas sgrub la thabs chags pa''/ /''sangs rgyas 'grub pa'i sa bon ma nor ba''/ /''rnam dag byang chub sems mchog bskyed par shog''. See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Bskal mang gong nas sogs'', in Gsung 'bum o rgyan 'jigs med chos kyi dbang po (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 8: 356, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW24829_B101CB.</ref>
}}
In the beginning, a practitioner must cultivate the mind (''cittotpāda'') of awakening through a concerted effort by taking the bodhisattva vow repeatedly, engaging in the various contemplative techniques, receiving teachings on bodhicitta and bodhisattva practices, and utilizing other methods. Gradually, one would become accustomed to thinking of bodhicitta, which would also become stronger and constant. When bodhicitta naturally arises without effort, a person is said to have formally become a bodhisattva. Thus, Jigme Lingpa said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=It is more important to have the supreme mind naturally arise than to consciously cultivate it.<ref>Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod kyi rgya cher 'grel pa bden gnyis shing rta rgyu mtshan nyid kyi theg pa'i skor'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (Gangtok, Sikkim: Sonam T. Kazi, 1970–75), 1: 246b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG10193_E90C9C.</ref>
}}
However, a beginner must make a contrived effort to generate bodhicitta, firstly by cultivating the aspiring bodhicitta and then by engaging in the practice of engaged bodhicitta. Śāntideva presents the distinction between the two in the following verses from his text ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra''):
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{{PullBcaVerses|1.16}}
One must first have the thought to take all sentient beings to the state of the Buddha just as one must first have the thought to go to Bodh Gaya before one starts the journey. Having generated the strong motivation to take all sentient beings to buddhahood, one must then engage in the actual paths and practices which lead them to the goal. The bodhisattva road consists of a long and arduous practice of the six perfections: giving, discipline, patience, effort, meditation and wisdom. These six topics cover the entire range of practices a person must take up as a bodhisattva to reach buddhahood. They also include the practice of both relative bodhicitta, or the moral mental resolve to take all sentient beings to the state of full awakening, and ultimate bodhicitta, which is the deep understanding and experience of the ultimate nature of all things.

<h2>Generating Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Vow</h2>
A beginner on the Mahāyāna path cultivates the thought of awakening by repeatedly wishing to take all sentient beings as vast as space to the unsurpassed, complete, and perfect state of the Buddha. To formally confirm such desire and express it as a commitment, a beginner undertakes the confirmation of the thought of awakening through a ritual of oath-taking. The first step in the procedure of such a ritual, and in fact in the general Buddhist process of self-transformation, is the reflection on the wonderful physical and psychological conditions one possesses as an able human being.

<h3>Physical Support</h3>
The meditation or reflection on the rarity and preciousness of humanhood is the first topic of meditation in almost all Tibetan Buddhist traditions when one starts a practice or meditation program. One must reflect, from different perspectives, on how humanhood, with its unique freedoms and advantages, is hard to find, and how it is a precious opportunity to seek enlightenment. Human existence offers a powerful combination of rational thinking and emotional capacity, creating ideal conditions to pursue the end of suffering and attain ultimate happiness.

Buddhist texts present the following hypothetical analogy to illustrate this rarity. Suppose a blind turtle lives at the bottom of an ocean and comes to the surface only once every hundred years. Meanwhile, floating on the ocean's surface is a wooden yoke being constantly swayed by the waves. Human birth, it is argued, is rarer than the chance of this turtle, during its brief surface visit, happening to put its neck directly through this floating yoke. Using such examples and many other methods, one is made to see the preciousness of human birth.

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Such a human state is not only rare and precious but very fragile. As such, one should meditate on the certainty of death and the uncertainty of when and how it will come. A student carries out meditation on the impermanence of life in order to cherish momentary existence and urgently make the best use of it. Meditation on the rarity of human existence and its impermanent nature is often followed by meditation on the law of cause and effect and the flaws of the cycle of existence, also known as samsara. If one does not take advantage of this fleeting human state to break the cycle of rebirth, one is bound to follow the law of cause and effect, and given the negative actions accumulated in innumerable lifetimes in the past, one is bound to remain trapped in this cycle of existence, which is filled with misery and pain. These four points of meditation, which often constitute the first set of topics for meditation in Tibetan Buddhism, are known as the four points of mind turning (བློ་ལྡོག་རྣམ་པ་བཞི་), as they turn one's mind away from the cycle of ordinary existence and are considered to be foundational practices on the spiritual path.

<h3>Mental Support</h3>
Along with holding dear the precious state of humanhood, one must also cherish and take advantage of the brief mental moments of positive thought and moral growth. Śāntideva writes in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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In the chaos of samsara, with its endless mundane preoccupations and unrelenting ignorance, it is rare to have clear virtuous thoughts. If they happen to occur briefly through the blessings of the Buddha, they fade away as quickly as they appear. Thus, it is important to grasp the opportunities when they appear.

Among the various kinds of virtuous thoughts, righteous ''faith'' is fundamental for generating the thought of awakening. It is important to have faith and trust in the Buddha, his teachings, and those following his teachings with proper understanding. Above all, it is important to develop faith and trust in the state of enlightenment, or buddhahood, in the noble qualities and characteristics buddhahood comes with, and in the compassionate engagements of the bodhisattvas. It is mainly through such faith and the knowledge gained through study, reflection, and teachings that one would seriously take up the project of generating the thought of awakening. Thus, the Buddha advises in ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having faith in the Buddha and the qualities of the Buddha,
In the conducts of the heirs of the Buddha,
And in the unsurpassed state of enlightenment,
The superior beings generate the thought of enlightenment.

Faith is a prerequisite, like a mother who nurtures.
It protects and enhances good qualities.<ref>''Ratnolkādhāraṇī'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa dkon mchog ta la la'i gzungs zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D145, mdo sde, vol. 57, pa, fol. 63b, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0145.</ref>
}}
Citing such verses, a teacher often elaborates on the benefits of having faith and its crucial role in spiritual transformation with the aim of helping a student generate faith in the teacher, teachings, paths, and results. There is a popular Tibetan saying that goes: "For the hook of the Buddha's compassion to catch hold, sentient beings need the ring of faith." Another popular Buddhist statement found in ''The Sūtra of Ten Dharmas'' (''Daśadharmakasūtra'') says, "A person without faith cannot give rise to positive things just as a burnt seed won't produce a green sprout."<ref>''dad pa med pa'i mi la ni''/ /''dkar po'i chos rnams mi skye ste''/ /''me yis sa bon tshig rnams la''/ /''myu gu sngon po ji bzhin no''//. See ''Daśadharmakasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos bcu pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D53, dkon brtsegs, vol. 40, kha, fol. 166a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0053. See also ''Mañjuśrī Root Tantra'' (''Āryamañjuśrīmūlatantra'', ''<i>'</i>Phags pa 'jam dpal gyi rtsa ba'i rgyud'', in Derge Kangyur D543, rgyud, vol. 88, na, fol. 159b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0543.</ref>

A more specific faith required in this case is the faith and trust in the value and merits of the thought of awakening so that one would seek it earnestly. For this reason, many sūtras and masters like Śāntideva extol the power of bodhicitta as a source of incredible merit and benefit. It is recommended that a student repeatedly reflect on the merits of bodhicitta and generate great interest in and high regard for the thought of awakening, resulting in a strong enthusiasm to cultivate it.

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Another fundamental emotion one must cherish and cultivate as a condition for the thought of awakening is ''compassion'', an intense wish to free all sentient beings from suffering and the causes of suffering. Compassion is considered to be the root of the thought of awakening, which is defined as having the two components of compassion and wisdom. Compassion feels the suffering of sentient beings, and wisdom understands the perfect state of the Buddha as the ultimate freedom from suffering. Students are instructed to cultivate compassion, and teachers use different methods, including storytelling, as a way to engender compassion and convince students of its spiritual efficacy and power.<ref>Read about the power of compassion through Asaṅga's story. For example, see Lama Chimpa and Alaka Chattopadhyaya, trans., ''Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India'', ed. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990), 154–58, https://archive.org/details/TaranathasHistoryOfBuddhismInIndia/page/n183/mode/2up.</ref> Motivated by the intense compassion to deliver sentient beings from suffering and the deep faith in buddhahood as the ultimate state of deliverance, one must have an earnest wish to seek the state of the Buddha.

<h3>Preceptorial Support</h3>
Just as a person on a long and arduous journey to an unknown place needs a good guide, it is vital to have a knowledgeable and experienced teacher to guide the student on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Such a spiritual master is often called a ''kalyāṇamitra'', or virtuous friend. In ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra''), the Buddha compares such a master to a mother who gives birth, a father who attends to the child's welfare, a nanny who constantly looks after the child, a guide who shows the path, a doctor who heals, a guard who protects, etc.<ref>''rigs kyi bu khyod kyis bdag la ni nad par 'du shes bskyed do''/ /''dge ba'i bshes gnyen la ni sman pa'i 'du shes dang''/ ''gdams ngag la ni sman gyi 'du shes dang''/ ''nan tan nyams su blang ba la ni nad 'tsho ba'i 'du shes bskyed par bya'o''/. ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' makes up the lengthy final chapter of ''The Sūtra of the Ornament of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhāvataṃsakamahāvaipūlyasūtra''). For this passage, see ''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtrāt gaṇḍavyūhasūtraḥ paṭalaḥ'' (''Shin tu rgyas pa chen po'i mdo sangs rgyas phal po che zhes bya ba las sdong pos brgyan pa'i le'u ste bzhi bcu rtsa''), in Derge Kangyur D44, phal chen, vol. 38, nga, fol. 286b–287a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/WA0RK0044-45.</ref>

Many Buddhist writings discuss the qualities and character of a spiritual teacher, how to find and follow such a teacher, and the numerous benefits of following the teacher. In ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', Śāntideva describes the teacher for someone on the Mahāyāna path as having two qualities.
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A teacher must be very learned in the Mahāyāna system and also practice the path with integrity. Maitreya describes the Mahāyāna teacher as having nine qualities in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtra'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Follow a teacher who is disciplined, gentle and fully at peace,
Who has superior qualities, diligence, and knowledge of scriptures,
Who has realized the truth, and is skilled in speech,
And one who is an epitome of love, and indefatigable.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde'i rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, sems tsam, vol. 123, phi, fol. 25b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref>
}}

As one begins the process of a bodhicitta practice, it is important to have a teacher for the ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow. In ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya''), Śāntideva highly recommends having a teacher bestow the bodhisattva vow in person, as such a presence would strengthen the process of taking the vow and also subsequently help one to observe the precepts carefully. If one cannot find or access a teacher who can administer the vows, one can either take the vow in the presence of holy shrines and objects or by visualizing the buddhas and bodhisattvas before oneself. However, this is more difficult for a beginner, particularly when carrying out the ritual according to the Vast Conduct tradition, in which the process of granting the vow for the engaged bodhicitta is mainly composed of reading out the lines for oath-taking by a preceptor or officiant. Thus, having a teacher is important for the process of taking the bodhisattva vow, but the role of the teacher extends beyond the initial ritual of taking the vow and spans the entire journey to perfect enlightenment.

As one greatly benefits from the presence and guidance of a teacher, one can have many teachers, as did Sudhana, the son of a merchant whose story is told in ''The Stem Array Sūtra''. Instructed by Mañjuśrī, Sudhana travels from place to place seeking 110 teachers before he arrives in the presence of Maitreya. Like the case of Sudhana, the teachers guide the student on the spiritual path throughout the entire journey, and the student must follow the teacher with great devotion and trust. In ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', the young man Śrīsambhava and the girl Śrīmati give Sudhana a long discourse on the benefits of following a teacher and the manner in which one must follow a teacher. They advise Sudhana to see himself as a sick person, the teacher as a doctor, the teachings as medicine, and the adoption of the teachings into practice as the treatment leading to the cure.<ref>''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtrāt gaṇḍavyūhasūtraḥ paṭalaḥ'' (''Shin tu rgyas pa chen po'i mdo sangs rgyas phal po che zhes bya ba las sdong pos brgyan pa'i le'u ste bzhi bcu rtsa''), in Derge Kangyur, D44, phal chen, vol. 38, a, fol. 287a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/WA0RK0044-45.</ref> This is one of the most powerful similes to illustrate one's relationship with a teacher.

<h3>The Procedure for Taking the Vow</h3>
There are two different Mahāyāna traditions for the ritual of administering and taking the bodhisattva vow. One is the ritual adopted in the Profound View tradition (ཟབ་མོ་ལྟ་བརྒྱུད་, pronounced "Zabmo Tagyu") coming down from Nāgārjuna and his followers, and the other is the ritual passed down in the Vast Conduct (རྒྱ་ཆེན་སྤྱོད་བརྒྱུད་, pronounced "Gyachen Chogyu" or "Gyachen Chopegyu") tradition from Maitreya, Asaṅga, and their followers. While the two traditions share the overall framework of the oath-taking ritual, the liturgies and fine points of procedures vary between them. Today, verses from the second and third chapter of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' are used commonly as the standard liturgy for the bodhisattva vow ritual in the Profound View tradition. This procedure is based on what was practiced in the old Kadam tradition and later promoted by Patrul Rinpoche.

The Vast Conduct tradition uses a different set of recitations in prose to take the vow of aspiring bodhicitta and a set of questions and answers for the engaged bodhicitta vow as passed down from Atiśa. Kongtrul Lodrö Taye presents detailed liturgies and explanations for both traditions in the third volume of his Treasury of Precious Instructions (གདམས་ངག་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་མཛོད།).<ref>For vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions, see Tsadra's Damngak Rinpoche Dzö website, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/DNZ-03-GA-001. For an English translation of the third volume, see Artemus B. Engle, trans., ''Kadam: Stages of the Path, Mind Training and Esoteric Practice, Part 1,'' vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet (Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod), compiled by Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (Boulder, CO: Snow Lion, 2024).</ref>

{{Standout|'''An example of a text for taking the vow can be found here:'''
:[[Articles/The_Ritual_for_the_Bodhisattva_Vow_Arranged_according_to_the_Tradition_of_Patrul_Rinpoche_(Chatral_Rinpoche_2008)|༄༅། །བྱང་སྡོམ་བླང་ཆོག་དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་གསུང་རྒྱུན་ལྟར་བཀོད་པ་བཞུགས་སོ། །]]
:[[Articles/The_Ritual_for_the_Bodhisattva_Vow_Arranged_according_to_the_Tradition_of_Patrul_Rinpoche_(Chatral_Rinpoche_2008)|The Ritual for the Bodhisattva Vow]]
:Arranged According to the Tradition of Patrul Rinpoche
:by Chatral Rinpoche}}

<h4>The Seven-Limb Prayer</h4>
The actual act of taking the bodhisattva vow is normally preceded by the seven-limb practice, which includes prostration, offering, confession, rejoicing, requesting to teach, requesting to live long, and dedication of merits. This standard ritual of worship is said to help the candidate gain the required karmic merit and overcome obstacles so as to become a ready recipient of the bodhisattva vow. The verses from ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions"'' (''Bhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja'') are widely used as a chant for carrying out the seven-limb prayer.

In order to conduct the bodhisattva vow ritual, one should first set up a physical shrine with a clean and beautiful array of offering materials, such as water, flowers, incense, food, etc., and bless them with mantras for offerings. One may also visualize such a shrine and the range of offerings. The buddhas, bodhisattvas, and all enlightened and righteous spiritual beings are then invited to the sacred space to bestow the bodhisattva vow.

<h5>1. Prostration</h5>
The practice of prostration is carried out mentally with or without physical prostration and is often accompanied by chanting verses. A practitioner normally does a simple prostration of devotion to the buddhas and bodhisattvas by bowing down and touching the ground with one's forehead, palms, and knees. One imagines that one's negativities of the body, speech, and mind, and the five poisons of ignorance, attachment, aversion, jealousy, and pride are cleansed as one bows down, and the blessings of the enlightened body, speech, mind, qualities, and activities of the Buddha are received when one stands up.

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In a more advanced practice of prostration, one can mentally multiply one's body into countless numbers and make prostrations to buddhas in all directions. The highest form of prostration is said to be the practice of making prostration with no fixed concept or notion of the subject making the prostration, the object to whom the prostration is made, and the actual action of prostration. Everything is seen as an illusory flux with no self-existence, like a dream.

<h5>2. Offering</h5>
Prostration is followed by the practice of offerings. One can set up an array of offerings of actual things one possesses, including food, drinks, flowers, incense, etc. One can also make offerings of beautiful lands, waterfalls, streams, birds, flowers, jewels, riches, and other pleasant things which exist in the world but are not personally owned. In addition, one can make offerings of wonderful things through visualization, such as offerings of celestial showers or feasts to the buddhas and bodhisattvas. The magnificent offerings, real or imaginary, can be further multiplied to fill the universe in all directions.

A common all-inclusive offering is the offering of the ''maṇḍala'', or the universe with all the riches and pleasant objects in it. A practitioner visualizes the entire universe by making a hand gesture of it or by holding a replica of the world as presented in the ancient Indian cosmology. There are short and long versions of liturgies for making the maṇḍala offering.

Śāntideva also provides verses to make the offering of one's body, enjoyments, and virtues. He mentions these three sets of possessions in both his works, ''The Compendium of Training'' and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva emphatically encourages the aspiring bodhisattva to give away these three possessions—which are the main objects of attachment and the main cause of self-centricity and its corollary problems—for the sake of all sentient beings. The offering of one's body, enjoyments, and virtues comprise the giving away of the most cherished physical and psychological properties.

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<h5>3. Confession</h5>
Offering, which helps one accrue karmic merit, is followed by the practice of confession, which removes the karmic impurities that can obstruct the cultivation of the thought of awakening. Using various texts such as ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps'' (''Triskandhakasūtra''), ''General Confessions'' (སྤྱི་བཤགས།), and verses from chapter 2 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', one must confess and make amends for one's bodily, verbal, and mental wrongdoings, which include committing sinful actions or violating a precept one has promised to observe.

The confession must possess the four characteristics known as the ''four powers'' to become effective: intense remorse, sincere restoration, remedial action, and reliable support.

<h5>4. Rejoicing</h5>
The fourth limb of the practice is to rejoice in the good works of both oneself and others. From the enlightened activities of the buddhas of the three times and the virtuous activities of all saints to the wholesome deeds of all beings, one must feel proud of them and truly rejoice in them. Rejoicing in good works is considered to be an easy way to gain merit.

<h5>5. Requesting to Teach</h5>
It is the light of Dharma that is required to clear ignorance, the root cause of suffering. Yet, the teachers are reluctant to teach without earnest interest from the students, as the truth is profound and sentient beings are generally preoccupied with vanity. Thus, in the manner of Brahmā and Indra requesting the Buddha to stop his silence after his enlightenment and teach, a student must request the buddhas and teachers to teach or turn the wheel of Dharma.

<h5>6. Requesting to Live Long</h5>
The Buddha is said to have extended his life after receiving the request to live longer. As the existence in samsara is marred with pain and suffering, the enlightened beings who have attained the power to transcend the ordinary cycle of rebirth are said to often choose to exit from worldly existence and enter nirvana. Thus, the buddhas and masters are requested to not enter the state of nirvana but to remain in the world for the benefit of sentient beings.

<h5>7. Dedication</h5>
Finally, one takes the merit accumulated from the six above-mentioned practices and all the other merit one has accumulated and dedicates that to the welfare of sentient beings. This is done with the following prayer: "May these virtuous actions help sentient beings reach the complete and perfect state of the Buddha."
The seven-limb prayer is often carried out by chanting the verses from ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions,"''<ref>See Rigpa Translations, trans., ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions"'' (''Zangchö Mönlam'') (Lotsawa House 1996), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/words-of-the-buddha/samantabhadra-aspiration-good-actions.</ref> which are taken from ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' from the Buddhāvataṃsaka collection. The verses from chapter 2 and 3 of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' are also used as a liturgy for conducting the seven-limb prayer.

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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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<h4>Mind Training</h4>
Having accumulated the required resources of merit and having removed the obstacles through the seven-limb prayer, one then prepares the state of one's mind. Just as a field is tilled to prepare it for planting, one makes one's mind conducive and pliable for the cultivation of bodhicitta.

There is a wide range of practices for mind training before and after taking the bodhisattva vow. Here, Patrul Rinpoche adopts the earnest arousal of the ''four immeasurable thoughts'' to prepare the mindset. They are loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, which are cultivated through the following wishes respectively.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=May all sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness.
May all sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering.
May all sentient beings be never separated from sacred joy.
May all sentient beings be free from attachment, aversion, partiality and abide in great equanimity.
}}
Following the cultivation of these four immeasurable thoughts, one must also cultivate the strong resolve to forsake everything for the sake of all sentient beings. One can chant the following verse and verses 12–22 of chapter 3 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
{{PullBcaVerses|3.11}}

<h4>The Actual Taking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h4>
There are two sets of liturgies for the actual taking of the bodhisattva vow passed down from the two main Mahāyāna traditions. Today, the Profound View tradition mainly uses the verses from chapter 2 and 3 of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', while the Vast Conduct tradition uses lines from Atiśa's ''Ritual Procedures for the Generation of the Mind and Vows'' (''Cittotpādasaṃvaravidhikrama'').<ref>See Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna, ''Cittotpādasaṃvaravidhikrama'' (''Sems bskyed pa dang sdom pa'i cho ga'i rim pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3969, dbu ma, vol.112, gi, fols. 245a2–248b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3969. For an English translation of the text (with Wylie), see Richard Sherburne, trans., ''The Complete Works of Atīśa, Śrī Dīpaṁkara Jñāna, jo-bo-rje: The Lamp for the Path and Commentary, Together with the Newly Translated Twenty-five Key Texts'' (New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2003), 536–51.</ref>

Although in some practices the ritual of taking refuge is added to the seven-limb prayer, making it an eight-limb prayer, as we find in the case of Śāntideva's and Atiśa's texts, most traditions have the verse for taking refuge chanted just before taking the bodhisattva vow. In this way, one takes the vow of refuge as well as the bodhisattva vow in one session.

In the Profound View tradition, the vows for both aspiring and engaged bodhicitta are taken in one session, while in the Vast Conduct tradition the two types of bodhisattva vows are taken separately. In the former tradition, the presence of a physical teacher is not essential, although that is preferred and highly recommended. In the latter tradition, as the second vow of engaged bodhicitta is taken mainly through a Q&A, there is a need for an officiant in person. The former also does not require a human birth as a precondition, and nonhuman beings such as gods and nāgas can get the bodhisattva vow. However, the Vast Conduct tradition argues that the bodhisattva vow must be based on general Buddhist ''prātimokṣa'' vows, which only a human can take.

<h5>Liturgy in the Profound View Tradition</h5>
In order to take the vows, one must first ask the buddhas, the bodhisattvas, and the great teachers to pay attention to the request, stating,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All buddhas, transcendent and accomplished conquerors, residing in the ten directions, bodhisattva great beings abiding on the ten levels (''bhūmi''s), and great guru vajra-holders, please consider me.<ref>''phyogs bcu na bzhugs pa'i sangs rgyas bcom ldan 'das thams cad dang''/ ''sa bcu la gnas pa'i byang chub sems dpa' sems dpa' chen po rnams dang''/ ''bla ma rdo rje 'dzin pa chen po rnams bdag la dgongs su gsol''/. For the Tibetan text, see Chatral Rinpoche, ''Byang sdoms blang chog dpal sprul gsung rgyun ltar bkod'', in Gsung 'bum, Bya bral sangs rgyas rdo rje (Taiwan: Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2017), 2: 215, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ354420. See also, Rigpa Translations, trans., "The Ritual for the Bodhisattva Vow: Arranged According to the Tradition of Patrul Rinpoche," by Chatral Rinpoche (Lotsawa House, 2008), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/chatral-rinpoche/bodhisattva-vow-patrul-tradition.</ref>
}}
With an exceptional motivation to save all sentient beings from suffering, one takes refuge in the exceptional objects, including the buddhas, their teachings, and the sangha community of enlightened bodhisattvas, for an exceptional duration—that is, until one reaches enlightenment. With such an attitude, one chants the following verse from the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' three times:
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This is followed by the verses to take the two types of bodhisattva vows: the vow of aspiring bodhicitta and that of engaged bodhicitta. The vow of aspiring bodhicitta is the pledge to attain the resultant buddhahood, while the vow of engaged bodhicitta is said to be the pledge to engage in the path leading to buddhahood. In the tradition coming down from Asaṅga, the vows for aspiring bodhicitta and engaged bodhicitta are taken separately and have different prerequisites. However, in Śāntideva's tradition presented here, vows for both are taken simultaneously. The following verses from chapter 3 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' are chanted three times, and one obtains vows for both aspiring and engaged bodhicitta at the end of the third recitation. At the end of the third recitation, one must mentally think one has received the vow.
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<h5>Liturgy in the Vast Conduct Tradition</h5>
The Vast Conduct tradition has a different procedure and different liturgies for administering the aspiring and engaged bodhicitta vows separately. Below are the core parts of the liturgies which the officiant must read out three times and have the recipient of the vow repeat or respond to.

<h5>Core Liturgy for the Aspiring Bodhicitta</h5>
The officiant chants the following lines three times and has the recipient of the vow repeat after him or her.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=By means of whatever roots of virtue having the nature of generosity, morality, or meditation that I, who am named so-and-so, have performed in any of my various past lives, that I induced others to perform, or that I have rejoiced at when they were performed by others, just as the former tathāgatas, arhats, and true and complete buddhas, as well as the bodhisattvas who are great beings that reside on the great ārya bodhisattva stages, generated the mind that aspires to attain unsurpassed true and complete enlightenment, I, too, who am named so-and-so, from this moment on until I reach the seat of enlightenment, generate the mind that aspires to attain unsurpassed true and complete great enlightenment.

I shall deliver those who have not been delivered;
I shall liberate those who have not been liberated;
I shall provide relief to those who are without relief;
and I shall establish all beings who have not attained complete
nirvana in that state of complete nirvana.<ref>Artemus Engle, trans., ''Kadam: Stages of the Path, Mind Training, and Esoteric Practice, Part 1'', vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet, comp. Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (Boulder, CO: Snow Lion, 2024), 462.</ref>
}}

<h5>Core Liturgy for the Engaged Bodhicitta</h5>
The liturgy for taking the engaged bodhicitta vow in the Vast Conduct tradition contains many questions and answers in order to prepare and confirm the conviction of the practitioner before taking the actual vow. The following lines are only the core and final part of the recitation which the officiant must say three times and the recipient of the vow must respond to affirmatively.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Then, the spiritual teacher should ask:

O son or daughter of good family who is named so-and-so, do you accept from me, a spiritual teacher and bodhisattva who is named so-and-so, all of the bodhisattva precepts and all of the bodhisattva morality—namely, the morality of restraint, the morality of acquiring virtuous qualities, and the morality of acting on behalf of sentient beings—those precepts and that morality that have been observed by all the bodhisattvas of the past, those precepts and that morality that shall be observed by all the bodhisattvas of the future, and those precepts and that morality that currently are being observed by all the bodhisattvas of the present throughout the ten directions, those precepts and that morality with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the past have trained themselves, with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the future shall train themselves, and with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the present are training themselves?

The disciples should receive the vow by answering:

I do accept all of them.<ref>Engle, ''Kadam'', 483.</ref>
}}

<h4>Concluding Procedures</h4>

<h5>Rejoicing Oneself</h5>
Having received the bodhisattva vows, one rejoices in the achievement, reflecting on how one has made human birth meaningful and how one has been reborn in the family of buddhas. One thinks, it is astounding if a blind man scavenging in a heap of rubbish finds the most precious jewel; It is equally astounding for an ordinary person blind with ignorance to find the thought of awakening, which is the jewel of the mind, in the midst of one's afflictive emotions and thoughts.

<h5>Asking Others to Rejoice</h5>
One then chants the verse, asking all other beings to also rejoice in this achievement. With the buddhas as witnesses, one invites all beings as guests to the great offering of the ultimate state of the Buddha and all other kinds of happiness in the interim. The ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow is concluded with prayers for bodhicitta to grow and flourish and for the fulfillment of one's bodhisattva aspiration and project. (link to the verse).

<h5>Making Offerings in Gratitude</h5>
The ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow, especially if it is done for the first time in the presence of a master, would also include the offering of gifts as a token of gratitude. Such an act of offering is undertaken at the end of almost all important sessions of receiving teachings or vows and may involve cash or other gift items. The ceremony of taking the vow will normally end with verses for the dedication of merit like any other Mahāyāna session.

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<h2>Protecting Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Precepts</h2>

<h3>The Discipline of Abstaining from Misdeeds</h3>
The practice of bodhisattva moral discipline after taking the bodhisattva vow is often presented in three categories.
# The discipline of abstaining from misdeeds
# The discipline of gathering virtue
# The discipline of working for the welfare of sentient beings

The discipline of abstaining from misdeeds includes the moral precepts a bodhisattva must follow and the major and minor transgressions, known as downfalls in the Buddhist vocabulary. These are listed below. The second and third discipline concern things a bodhisattva should do and will be covered in subsequent sections.

<h4>Precepts for Aspiring Bodhicitta</h4>
One must avoid the four dark dharmas and follow the four white dharmas taught in ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra'').

Don'ts
#Cheat the venerable ones, including teachers
#Make someone with no regret regret a good deed
#Defame a noble being such as a bodhisattva
#Deceive sentient beings

Dos
#Tell no lies knowingly
#Treat sentient beings with benevolence
#Respect and praise a bodhisattva
#Place beings on the path to perfect buddhahood

<h4>Precepts for Engaged Bodhicitta in the Profound View Tradition: Eighteen Root Downfalls</h4>
One must avoid the eighteen root downfalls (transgressions or misdeeds) according to ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), which Śāntideva cites in ''The Compendium of Training'' and refers to in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.

<h5>Five Downfalls a King Is Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Take away property from the Three Jewels and stūpas
# Discard the holy Dharma of any vehicle
# Persecute someone in monastic robes, whether a monk or a transgressor
# Commit one of the five actions of immeasurable consequences
# Take up wrong views and nonvirtuous practices and make others do so

<h5>Five Downfalls a Minister Is Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Destroy a village
# Destroy a region
# Destroy a town
# Destroy a city
# Destroy a country

<h5>Eight Downfalls Common People Are Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Teach emptiness to someone who is not ready and make the person turn away from Mahāyāna
# Dissuade someone from the Mahāyāna path so that the person seeks individual liberation
# Dissuade someone from monastic and vinaya discipline saying it is better to train on the Mahāyāna path
# Deny that the path of disciples leads to the end of desire, etc. and convince someone
# Praise oneself and disparage others out of jealousy
# Sell oneself with lies of seeing the truth for the sake of wealth and veneration
# Get a monk punished and accept bribes regarding such an act
# Obstruct meditation by diverting provisions for practitioners to those doing recitation

<h4>Precepts for Engaged Bodhicitta in the Vast Conduct Tradition: Four Root Downfalls</h4>

Asaṅga summarizes the root downfalls taught in different sūtras into four in his ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi'').
#Praise oneself and criticize others out of attachment for wealth and veneration
#Not give wealth or Dharma to others out of stinginess
#Not accept an apology and hurt others out of anger
#Abandon Mahāyāna and teach fake dharma as true Dharma

<h4>Precepts for Both Aspiring and Engaged Bodhicitta</h4>
#Not forsake any sentient being or give up on helping someone and seek individual liberation
#Not engage in altruistic work or help, even if one is in a position to help

<h4>Minor Downfalls</h4>
Minor downfalls include various physical, verbal, and mental actions one must avoid as taught in chapter 5 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Compendium of Training'', and many sūtras. They include bodily comportments, such as unbecoming behavior, nonvirtuous forms of speech, such as idle gossip and harsh words, and negative thoughts and emotions. Commentators on ''The Compendium of Training'' enumerate eighty minor downfalls, while Candragomin's ''Vows in Twenty Verses'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'') mentions forty-six minor downfalls. The following passage from ''The Compendium of Training'' summarizes the complex moral system and downfalls of bodhisattva practice.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=In order to pacify the suffering and mental pain of all sentient beings in the present and in the future, and to generate happiness and mental pleasure of all sentient beings in the present and in the future, if a bodhisattva does not diligently engage body, speech, and mind without wavering, does not seek the conditions for them, does not work on remedying what obstructs them, does not take up the small suffering and mental pain which can overcome great suffering and mental pain, does not forsake small things for achieving greater things, and neglects doing so even for a moment, he/she commits a downfall. There is no downfall for not taking up what is beyond one's capacity, as there is no rule made for that in reality. In other cases [i.e., where one is capable], it is either a misdeed by nature or by restriction.<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fols. 11a6-11b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940.</ref>
}}
Śāntideva points out that some actions may appear like a downfall, called images of downfalls, but they are not downfalls. Such actions might include telling a white lie to save a life. These actions are permitted. But some actions may appear to be without a downfall, called images of non-downfalls, while being a downfall in reality. Such actions would include those which externally appear virtuous but are done with selfish intentions or actions that involve trying to do things which are beyond one's capacity.

<h4>Making Amends</h4>
Transgressing a bodhisattva vow is considered a serious offense, as such a person loses his or her moral integrity, fails to keep one's status, displeases the buddhas, lets down sentient beings whom one has promised to save, and could be reborn in unhappy realms. Thus, one must make amends through confession within six hours, or one-sixth of a day. Applying the four powers for confession mentioned earlier, a bodhisattva who has committed a downfall must make confessions and amendments. Śāntideva recommends that a bodhisattva who has committed a downfall must confess by chanting ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps'' three times during day and three times during the night.<ref>See ''Triskhandhakasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa phung po gsum pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo'') D284, mdo sde, vol. 68, ya, 57a3–77a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0284. For an English translation, see Stefan Mang and Peter Woods (Samye Translations), trans., "The Bodhisattva's Confession of Downfalls" (Lotsawa House, 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/words-of-the-buddha/confession-of-downfalls-nyingma.</ref>

Śāntideva also cites ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' and advises that a bodhisattva who has committed downfalls can confess to Ākāśagarbha, who will appear in a dream in some form to help one make amends by giving instructions. The bodhisattva must make the following supplication to Ākāśagarbha before twilight and sleep again:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Dawn! Dawn! O Compassionate and Fortunate One! As soon as you shine on the world, cover me with compassion. I also entreat Ākāśagarbha, the compassionate one, to show me the means by which I can confess the downfalls and the means by which I can attain the wisdom and skillful means of the sublime Mahāyāna.<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fol. 42a6-42b1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. For the passage in the ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa nam mkha'i snying po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), see Derge Kangyur D260, mdo sde, vol. 66, za, fol. 275.b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0260.</ref>
}}

<h3>The Discipline of Gathering Virtue</h3>
The discipline of gathering virtue refers to the bodhisattva practice of the six perfections, including giving, discipline, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom. How a practitioner takes up the practice of these six perfections will be explained below under the practice of engaged bodhicitta. It may be noted here, however, that through the six perfections, a bodhisattva gathers what is known as the ''two accumulations'': the accumulation of merit (''puṇyasambhāra'', བསོད་ནམས་ཀྱི་ཚོགས་) and the accumulation of pristine wisdom (''jñānasambhāra'', ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་ཚོགས་). The practice of the first five perfections falls under the first accumulation, and the sixth perfection comprises the second accumulation. A bodhisattva must complete these two accumulations or the six perfections (ཕར་ཕྱིན་དྲུག་རྫོགས་) in order to reach full buddhahood. In addition, a bodhisattva must also help mature or prepare the minds of his or her future disciples (གདུལ་བྱའི་རྒྱུད་སྨིན་) and cultivate the kind of realm or world he or she will attain (ཞིང་སྦྱོང་བ་). The latter two are undertaken through the various prayers a bodhisattva should make.

<h3>The Discipline of Benefitting Sentient Beings</h3>
The discipline of benefiting sentient beings is normally presented through the four means of attraction. While the discipline of abstaining from misdeeds and the discipline of gathering virtue helps a practitioner in self-development, the discipline of benefiting sentient beings helps the practitioner engage in altruistic activities for others. The four means of attraction are a skillful strategy with which a bodhisattva can benefit the world.

<h4>Gift Giving</h4>
A practitioner of the bodhisattva path should first give material gifts or Dharma teachings to attract potential beneficiaries. Most sentient beings appreciate gifts, and this helps attract their attention.

<h4>Sweet Words</h4>
Having attracted sentient beings through giving, the bodhisattva speaks to the audience with soft and persuasive speech to make them enter the right path. Thus, material gifts are followed by sweet talk.

<h4>Purposeful Practice</h4>
With knowledge of the wide spectrum of paths to enlightenment, the bodhisattva then teaches a path which is suitable and most effective to the audience. It is important to impart teachings which are appropriate to the capacity, disposition, and interest of the audience.

<h4>Consistent Engagement</h4>
While teaching the appropriate path to the audience, it is important for the bodhisattva to also lead by example. Thus, a practitioner of bodhisattva discipline must walk the talk and engage in the appropriate practice himself or herself.

<h3>The Four Bodhisattva Actions</h3>
Śāntideva's ''Compendium of Training'', which is an anthology of passages from the Mahāyāna sūtras on the training and practice of bodhisattvas, summarizes the training of bodhisattvas under the four actions of giving, protection, purification, and expansion of the three objects, including body, possessions, and virtues of the past, present, and future times. This is presented in a verse in ''The Compendium of Training'' as the crux of the matter to avoid any transgressions on the bodhisattva path:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions. (3)
}}

{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them. (4)<ref>For the verses in Tibetan, see Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fol. 1b , http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
}}
Śāntideva presents the four actions as a way for the practitioner engaged in the bodhisattva training to avoid moral transgressions and to make progress on the path. It is important for the practitioner to practice giving in the form of charity, teaching, and company. One must particularly dedicate and give one's body, possessions, and virtues to all sentient beings. Only by giving up attachment to these three objects of ordinary attachment and using these three objects for the benefit of the world can a person truly make progress on the bodhisattva path.

In order to have them available for sentient beings, a practitioner must protect these objects. One must not waste, squander, or neglect these objects, which can be of great benefit to the world. A practitioner's sense of giving and protecting these objects should not be stained by selfish interests and other negative emotions but be pure and wholesome. Thus, a bodhisattva must purify one's thoughts, speech, and actions and make available the three objects of body, possessions, and virtues to sentient beings in a pure form, in both thought and deed. If the benefit of the three objects of body, possessions, and virtues are not multiplied or expanded, there cannot be a great impact which is appropriate for the vast world of sentient beings. Thus, a practitioner must expand and scale up the impact of giving one's body, possessions, and virtues so that sentient beings gain optimal benefit. Such expansion and amplification is carried out through practices such as visualization and dedication.

<h2>Enhancing Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Practices</h2>

<h3>Enhancing Aspiring Bodhicitta</h3>

The ritual for taking the bodhisattva vow only starts the process of training in the Mahāyāna path for a new practitioner. Such an initial cultivation of bodhicitta must be followed by persistent practice to sustain and strengthen it, and there are many ways of nurturing the altruistic mind and cultivating bodhicitta. In the Profound View tradition, the practice of the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, as presented by Śāntideva in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', feature as the main practice. In the Vast Conduct tradition, the contemplation on the seven points of cause and effect, passed down from Asaṅga via Atiśa, is the most well-known practice. The meditation on the four immeasurable thoughts of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity is another method to cultivate the aspiring bodhicitta.

In carrying out these practices, an important point is to treat all sentient beings with equanimity, without any discrimination and partiality. To do so, in most Tibetan Buddhist traditions, a practitioner is instructed to visualize one's mother alongside a person whom one hates or whom one may consider as an enemy. In some traditions, one is encouraged to visualize one's mother as the center figure surrounded by other loved ones and all other sentient beings, including one's enemies. The figure of the mother is used because the mother is generally considered to be the person who loves one the most and toward whom one normally has a strong affection.

In order to cultivate a strong sense of equanimity, some masters use the concept of rebirth. As one has taken innumerable rebirths in the past in this cycle of existence, all beings have become one's mother, not just once or twice but countless times. While they were mothers, they have been as kind and loving as one's present mother. Thus, all sentient beings are treated equally as recipients of one's love and compassion. It is with such a sense of impartiality that one must practice the different methods of strengthening the aspiring bodhicitta.
<span id="The_Equality_between_Self_and_Others" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>The Equality between Self and Others</h4>
The practice of equality between self and others is carried out through the following series of contemplative thoughts and arguments.

<h5>Equal in Desiring Happiness</h5>
All sentient beings equally desire happiness. There is no difference between myself and others in wanting happiness, although we may differ in how we seek such happiness. Therefore, there is no reason why I should only seek my own happiness and not that of others. Śāntideva states:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.95}}
It is irrational and irresponsible that I seek only my happiness when both I and all other sentient beings equally desire happiness. Thus, I must seek happiness for others because they are sentient beings, just like my own body. As Śāntideva has said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=And others I will aid and benefit,
For they are living beings, like my body. (8.94)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 122.</ref>
}}

<h5>Equal in Disliking Suffering</h5>
All sentient beings equally dislike suffering. There is no difference between myself and others in not wanting pain and suffering. Therefore, there is no reason why I should only eliminate my own suffering and not that of others. Śāntideva states:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.96}}
It is irrational and irresponsible that I seek to eliminate only my own suffering when both I and all other sentient beings equally dislike suffering. Thus, I must eliminate the suffering of others because they are suffering, just like my own pain. As Śāntideva has said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=And therefore I'll dispel the pain of others,
For it is simply pain, just like my own. 8.94<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 122.</ref>
}}

<h5>Equal in Being Part of One Whole</h5>
If it is argued that I and others are different and therefore I need not seek the happiness of others and eliminate the suffering of others, such distinction is imaginary and subjective. The hands and feet are different parts of the body, but they can be seen as being parts of the same body. The hand helps to scratch when the foot is itching. In the same way, all sentient beings are parts of the living world as a whole, and I ought to look after other sentient beings. Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.114}}

<h5>Equal in Not Having "Self" or an Owner of Experience</h5>
Moreover, if there were a true self or owner of the experience of happiness or suffering, one could make such a distinction and discriminate. However, there is no such self who owns the experience to be found if I critically examine the mind-body composition. All beings are merely an assembly of many psycho-physical constituents, and our experiences are the same. There is no difference in the experiences and no real person or being to distinguish us as different individuals. Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.102}}

<h5>Equal in Being Able to Cherish Others</h5>
If it is thought that I cannot love strangers and unrelated sentient beings just as I love myself or those related to me, such a thought is mistaken. Sentient beings can easily love others with a change of mindset and habituation. If I buy a dog from a shelter and adopt it as a pet, from the moment I take it under my care, I would cherish and love it, although it was unknown to me before such a time. It is a matter of opening one's heart to cherish sentient beings. Even the love for one's body has come about as a result of one's mental attitude and habituation, just as Śāntideva has said:
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<h5>Equalize Thinking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h5>
A practitioner must regularly remember the bodhisattva vow one has taken and remind oneself of one's commitment to rescue all sentient beings from suffering. One should think: "I am a responsible person and a person of integrity. I must not break my promise or falter from the pledge which I have taken in the presence of all buddhas and sentient beings." All beings were given assurance that I will help them and save them from suffering. If I were to give up the promise, let down the buddhas, and deceive sentient beings, what will be my future?" With such thoughts, a practitioner endeavors to equally benefit other sentient beings as oneself and strives to equally dispel the suffering of others as one's own suffering. To this effect, Śāntideva has said:
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<h4>The Exchange between Self and Others</h4>
The next step after the practice of equalizing oneself and others is the practice of exchange between self and others. In ordinary life and the world, one is used to cherishing oneself (བདག་གཅེས་འཛིན་), but on the bodhisattva path, one must cherish others (གཞན་གཅེས་འཛིན་). In actualizing bodhicitta, love and compassion for others takes priority over love for oneself. Altruism overrides self-centricity. One must, therefore, switch from cherishing and loving oneself to cherishing and loving others. In order to exchange between self and others as the object of love and affection, one must contemplate the virtues, advantages, and appropriateness of cherishing others and the vices, disadvantages, and inappropriateness of cherishing oneself.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Value of Actions</h5>
Self-love is at worst evil and at best ordinary, whereas altruistic love is noble and sublime. Taking the case of giving, Śāntideva writes:
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Ethically speaking, an altruistic action has high positive value, whereas a selfish action is negative and deplorable, even by worldly standards. Thus, considering the ethical value of altruistic actions, one must cherish others instead of cherishing oneself.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Result of Actions</h5>
Following the law of cause and effect, a selfish action is negative and therefore leads to undesirable results, whereas an altruistic action is a highly positive action which results in desirable outcomes. Śāntideva writes:
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In order to avoid pain and suffering and to instead experience pleasure and happiness, it is important to stop cherishing oneself and to cherish others and engage in altruistic actions.

<h5>Exchange to Follow Great Beings</h5>
When one looks at the history of the world, all great beings, including the Buddha and other sublime Mahāyāna masters, have become great by cherishing others. Ordinary beings remain stuck in lowly life because they only cherish themselves. Śāntideva remarks:
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In order to emulate the great beings and, in particular, follow the Buddha on the path to enlightenment, it is essential to cherish others and to engage in altruistic actions. Cherishing oneself is giving in to the ordinary habit of the childish.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Number and Significance</h5>
Moreover, it is important to cherish others over oneself because the world of sentient beings is far greater in number and significance than oneself or a small group of one's loved ones. A wise person works for the vast majority and the greater good of society at large instead of a single person or family. The impact of working for others will be manifold compared to the result of working for just oneself. Thus, Śāntideva exhorts:
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<h5>Exchange Thinking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h5>
A practitioner recollects the bodhisattva vow he or she has taken to serve all sentient beings. In order to live up to one's pledge and act according to the oath taken in the presence of the buddhas and sentient beings, the practitioner reinforces the commitment to work for all sentient beings and to cherish others over and above oneself. As Śāntideva has said:
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Using different arguments and justifications, one must exchange oneself and others and swap cherishing oneself with cherishing others. One must know that if one does not do so, there is no benefit in the long term in cherishing oneself. Śāntideva has this reminder:
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<span id="Tonglen_-_The_Practice_of_Exchange" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>Tonglen - The Practice of Exchange</h4>
In Tibet, the practice of exchange between self and others is taken up commonly as ''tonglen'', or giving and taking. In this practice, one takes the suffering and problems of other sentient beings onto oneself and gives to them one's own happiness and resources.

One would mentally place one's mother and all sentient beings in front of oneself and, out of an intense feeling of gratitude and affection, imagine giving one's body, possessions, and virtues to them. As one does this, one can visualize a white, soothing, blissful substance, like warm milk or soft wool, which is in essence joy and happiness, flowing out of oneself to others. As the soothing substance envelopes others and fills these beings, the area, the world, and, gradually, the entire universe, one imagines that the beings are filled with joy and bliss. Then, one visualizes a dark, foul substance, like dirty smoke, which is in essence suffering and the problems of the world, flowing from others into one's own being. As it enters one's body, one imagines that all the problems and miseries of others are taken in by oneself. Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim wrote the following to this effect:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=May my body, possessions, and stock of virtues
All bear fruit for every sentient being.
May all diverse emotions and wrongdoing of the world
Fall upon me and may they be well.<ref>Karma Phuntsho, ''The Life and Works of Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim'' (Thimphu: Loden Foundation, 2023), 59.</ref>
}}
This practice of ''tonglen'', which is highlighted in the ''lojong'', or mind training, tradition of the Kadam school, is also combined with breathing exercises. In such practice, as one exhales, one visualizes soft, milky, blissful clouds of happiness and joy issuing forth from one's body and filling the target beneficiaries, the world, and the universe with the white soothing substance, which is bliss and happiness. As one inhales, one visualizes a dark, foul substance, which is suffering and the problems of other beings, pouring into oneself and thereby freeing all other sentient beings from sufferings and problems.

As it can be challenging to imagine taking in all the problems and suffering of the world for an ordinary practitioner, some traditions add an extra step of visualization. As the negative energy and suffering of the entire world is absorbed in the form of a dark, putrid substance during inhalation, one visualizes in the center of one's heart a powerful and radiant vajra or ball of light which transmutes the negative energy and suffering into positive energy and sublime bliss. One then imagines, as one exhales, that this positive energy and bliss in the form of soothing white light is sent out to cover all sentient beings and fill the entire universe.

<h4>Seven-Point Instructions of Cause and Effect</h4>
One of the most popular contemplative practices to enhance the aspiring bodhicitta and strengthen the bodhisattva's willpower is the seven-point instructions of cause and effect coming down from Atiśa through the Kadam tradition. Unlike Śāntideva's instructions, which use rational arguments, the seven-point instructions use the concept of reincarnation and the belief in innumerable rebirths one has taken in the past. Starting with the belief that all sentient beings have become one's mother, the instructions proceed from one point to another in the form of the preceding point being a cause leading to the subsequent one as the result. Thus, it is known as the seven-point instructions of cause and effect.

<h5>1. Seeing All Beings as Your Mother</h5>
The first point of meditation is to recognize all sentient beings as having been one's mother. One meditates on the point that in the course of the countless rebirths one has taken in this cycle of existence, all sentient beings have become one's mother, not just once or twice but innumerable times. Nāgārjuna states hypothetically that if one made balls of earth as big as Indian cypress seeds, the number of times a sentient being has become one's mother would exceed the number of balls one can make using the entire earth. Using the belief in the cycle of rebirth, one must generate the strong belief that all sentient beings have become one's mother.

<h5>2. Remembering the Kindness of the Mother</h5>
When they were our mothers, sentient beings showed us great love and affection. From carrying us in their wombs for nine months with much love and care, giving the best food, keeping us warm, and protecting us from harm, to helping us to grow up and succeed in life, they have shown unrelenting and unconditional love and kindness. They would have preferred to die rather than see us get even mildly sick. One should think of the absolute kindness with which the mother sentient beings have taken care of us in past lifetimes and how much one owes to them for their kindness.

<h5>3. Wishing to Repay the Kindness</h5>
Being acutely aware of their kindness, one must not only remember their kindness but act to repay the kindness. One must think: "Today, I am a capable and responsible human being. I should not merely feel the kindness of the mother sentient beings and be grateful but do something meaningful to show them gratitude and return their kindness." As a conscientious person, it is important to reciprocate the kindness others have shown to us. In this manner, one cultivates a strong compulsion to do something to reciprocate the love and kindness of the mother sentient beings.

<h5>4. Love</h5>
One wonders what would be the best way to reciprocate the kindness of the mother sentient beings. All sentient beings like happiness. Thus, it would be appropriate to show gratitude and return their kindness by helping them attain happiness. In order to attain happiness, one must have the causes and conditions for happiness. Therefore, one should seek happiness and the causes of happiness for all kind mother sentient beings in order to repay their kindness. As such, one makes the aspiration: "May all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness."

<h5>5. Compassion</h5>
In order to genuinely enjoy happiness, one must get rid of pain and suffering, and to do so, one must eliminate the causes of suffering. Therefore, one should seek to eliminate suffering and the causes of suffering so that the mother sentient beings can enjoy happiness. One makes the aspiration: "May all kind mother sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering."

<h5>6. Special Intention</h5>
Merely wishing that mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and be free from suffering and the causes of suffering is not enough. In order for them to realize this, one must take up the responsibility to help them do so and act with a strong resolve and determination. Thus, one should think: "Come what may, I shall personally strive to make all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and free them from suffering and the causes of suffering."

<h5>7. Generating the Mind of Enlightenment</h5>
Having developed such an unwavering resolve to make all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and free them from suffering and the causes of suffering, one seeks the most effective way to do so. What would be a viable and sustainable state to place all kind mother sentient beings in so that they can enjoy genuine happiness and be free from suffering? There is no genuine and lasting happiness and permanent freedom from suffering in this cycle of existence. All levels of existence in samsara are marred by dissatisfaction and eventually end up in suffering. Thus, there is no place or state of existence in samsara that is a viable permanent solution. Even if one attains the personal nirvana of individual liberation as an enlightened saint, there is no genuine happiness in an individualistic state of nirvana when the rest of the world around oneself is plunged in the sea of suffering. How can one enjoy full happiness by turning a blind eye to the suffering around oneself? Besides, even the enlightened saints, who are yet to become fully enlightened buddhas, are not free from the pain of subtle ignorance and the process of becoming. Thus, the only state with genuine and lasting happiness is the state of the fully enlightened buddha, who is not only free from all suffering and enjoying supreme bliss but also brimming with joy in helping sentient beings.

Thus, one should have the resolve: "In order to repay the immense kindness of my kind mother sentient beings, to help them attain genuine and lasting happiness and the causes of happiness, and to free them from suffering and the causes of suffering, I shall by myself and by any means place all kind mother sentient beings in the state of the unsurpassed, perfect, and fully enlightened Buddha." This seventh and final point is bodhicitta.

<span id="Four_Immeasurable_Thoughts" style="display: block; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></span>
<h4>Four Immeasurable Thoughts</h4>
The four immeasurable thoughts are loving kindness (''maitrī'', བྱམས་པ་), compassion (''karuṇa'', སྙིང་རྗེ་), sympathetic joy (''muditā'', དགའ་བ་), and equanimity (''upekṣā'', བཏང་སྙོམས་). Concepts which perhaps predate Buddhism, they form one of the most common sets of practices of love and goodwill in all schools of Buddhism. However, they play a very important role as techniques to express compassion and enhance altruism.

Loving-kindness refers to the wish to bring happiness and the causes of happiness to all sentient beings. Compassion refers to the wish to free all sentient beings from suffering and the causes of suffering. Sympathetic joy is the thought of rejoicing in the happiness of sentient beings and wishing they be never separated from it. And equanimity, as it is understood in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, is the attitude to treat all sentient beings with total impartiality, with no sense of discrimination, attachment, or aversion.

Like the practices above, it is considered important in the Mahāyāna system to develop equanimity as the first of the four immeasurable thoughts. Thus, one may start the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts by visualizing one's mother and one's enemy on equal terms in front of oneself, surrounded by other sentient beings. Only meditation with such a sense of equanimity becomes a truly Mahāyāna practice. Having one's parents, enemies, relatives, friends, colleagues, and the entire world of sentient beings as one's object of meditation, one can then cultivate the four immeasurable thoughts. There are many different ways of practicing the four immeasurable thoughts in the different Buddhist traditions. The cultivation of the four immeasurable thoughts through four modes according to the tradition passed down from Patrul Rinpoche is given below.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as an Aspiration</h5>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the cause of happiness.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, never be separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in boundless equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Wish</h5>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attained happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, became free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, were never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abided in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Pledge</h5>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, become free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Supplication</h5>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, become free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Three Levels of Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts</h5>
In the Mahāyāna system, there are three different levels of contemplating the four immeasurable thoughts.
#The first level is to contemplate as mentioned above, with the conventional knowledge that sentient beings exist and need to be freed from suffering and placed in the state of happiness. Because one assumes sentient beings to exist and practices loving-kindness, etc. for sentient beings, this type of practice is known as loving-kindness focused on sentient beings (སེམས་ཅན་དམིགས་པ་).
#On the next, higher level of the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, one can practice loving-kindness, etc. with the awareness of the impermanent and transient nature of sentient beings. Impermanence and change are the true nature of conditioned life. Thus, the practice of loving-kindness, etc. with an awareness of impermanence is known as loving-kindness, etc. focused on the truth (ཆོས་ལ་དམིགས་པ་).
#On the highest level of ontological scrutiny and the nature of existence, there is no sentient being, no person practicing the four immeasurable thoughts, and no act of loving-kindness, etc. Everything is empty of true existence and is merely an illusory appearance. Thus, there is no object to apprehend; there is no focus or fixation on anything. The practice of loving-kindness without the sense of grasping and apprehension of anything is known as loving-kindness without apprehension (དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་). A bodhisattva must eventually cultivate the four immeasurable thoughts in this manner—without grasping, attachment, and fixation.

<h4>Compassion</h4>
A simple but powerful way to cultivate bodhicitta is to develop the feeling of compassion. As compassion is seen as the immediate cause of bodhicitta, many sūtras and commentarial treatises underscore the practice of compassion in order to cultivate genuine bodhicitta. Masters such as Candrakīrti and Kamalaśīla highlight the vital role of great compassion in generating bodhicitta and practicing the Mahāyāna path. Right at the beginning of his famous treatise ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''), Candrakīrti praises compassion by describing it as a process of cultivation, comparing it to a seed in the beginning, to water in the middle, and to a ripened harvest at the end.<ref>See Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, dbu ma, vol. 102, 'a, fol. 201b , http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> Thus, according to Candrakīrti, compassion plays a fundamental role throughout the Mahāyāna process of enlightenment. Similarly, in the first chapter of his ''Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama''), Kamalaśīla cites many sūtras to show how great compassion plays a central role in Mahāyāna practice. He then goes on to show how one can generate compassion by meditating on the suffering of sentient beings.

One must think of the myriad kinds of suffering sentient beings go through, from the unbearable cold and heat in the hell realms, the torment of hunger and thirst among hungry ghosts, and the exploitation, fear, torture, and killing that animals, insects, fish, and birds go through. Even as humans, beings suffer from poverty, subjugation, persecution, illness, death, separation from loved ones, and meeting with those who are unpleasant. One must meditate on the countless forms of pain and suffering sentient beings undergo and then wish all sentient beings to be free from such suffering. Repeatedly thinking of the suffering of sentient beings and intensely wishing all sentient beings to be totally free from such suffering leads to the quick and easy generation of bodhicitta.

Initially, one can generate such a wish for one's loved ones and then extend it to strangers and eventually to those one dislikes. Reflection on how one has taken countless rebirths in this cycle of existence and how all sentient beings have become one's mother and relatives may be carried out to help develop equanimity and generate intense compassion toward all sentient beings without bias and partiality.

Being an integral part of bodhicitta, compassion is seen as the quintessence of all spiritual practice. To this effect, Avalokiteśvara states in ''The Dharma Council Sūtra'' (''Dharmasaṃgītisūtra''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Blessed One! A bodhisattva need not train in numerous dharmas. If a bodhisattva understands and upholds one dharma, all dharmas of the Buddha will be on the palm of his hand. What is that one dharma? It is great compassion.<ref>''Dharmasaṃgītisūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos yang dag par sdud pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), Derge Kangyur D238, mdo sde, vol. 65, zha, fol. 84b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW30532_0238.</ref>
}}

<h3>Enhancing Engaged Bodhicitta</h3>
The practice of engaged or active bodhicitta covers the entire range of the Mahāyāna paths and practices that a bodhisattva must follow and adopt. The Mahāyāna paths and innumerable practices are commonly captured in the set of six perfections that a bodhisattva must master in order to reach the state of a fully enlightened buddha.

<h4>The Practice of the Six Perfections</h4>
The six perfections in Mahāyāna Buddhism are giving, discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom. They are said to cover all aspects of bodhisattva practice and are arranged in a sequence of their importance and depth, with the latter being more important and deeper than the former.

<h5>Giving (''dāna'', སྦྱིན་པ་)</h5>
The practice of giving or generosity is defined by the inner sense of giving rather than by the quantity or value of the material given. Śāntideva writes in the fifth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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Giving helps a practitioner overcome the negative trait of stinginess and attachment to things. If one has a strong attachment to things and is not able to give anything to others, a beginner could start by giving something from one hand to the other in order to get used to the act of giving. A student can train in giving by giving things of little value or by giving to people who are close. Gradually, a practitioner can give things of higher value, giving even to strangers and enemies. A bodhisattva develops the sense of giving gradually and tests his or her willpower and mental ability to give without expecting anything in return or any reward. A bodhisattva is not allowed to give anything he or she is not capable of giving wholeheartedly. When a bodhisattva has developed a strong sense of giving, he or she can give away even parts of the body with no attachment or regret. A bodhisattva with a highly advanced sense of giving will experience joy and bliss in giving away even parts of his or her own body. Thus, it is important to cultivate the inner sense of giving.

The will to give is often cultivated in the beginning by explaining the karmic benefit of giving. Giving leads to wealth and prosperity in the future. Thus, people are often encouraged to give with the belief of getting rich in the future. However, a bodhisattva's giving must transcend such worldly practice. Eventually, a bodhisattva must give without any expectation of return in this life or reward in the form of karmic results in future lifetimes. Stories of the Buddha and other masters are also frequently told to inspire giving. The Buddha is said to have given his body to a hungry tigress as Prince Mahāsattva and to flesh eating demons as King Maitrībala.
He is said to have given all the riches of his kingdom, his wife, children, and eyes to beggars as Prince Viśvantara. These and many other inspirational stories are used to help practitioners develop the sense of giving.

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The Mahāyāna tradition presents three types of giving:
#Giving material goods
#Giving protection
#Giving Dharma

One can give material gifts to one's teachers, parents, beggars, mendicants, and other recipients. Śāntideva's ''Compendium of Training'' mentions how a monk must practice giving by sharing a portion of one's alms with other beings. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' presents giving mostly in the context of making offerings to the enlightened beings as part of the seven-limb prayer and the dedication of one's body, possessions, and virtues to the welfare of all sentient beings. Making offerings, either through the actual giving of things or through visualization, is a very common practice of giving material gifts and services. Even if one does not have anything to give or cannot afford to do so, one can practice giving by imagining giving one's body, possessions, virtues, and other pleasant things in existence.

Giving protection includes saving life, giving company, and defending the weak. Rescuing animals from the butcher, saving fish from being killed, and freeing caged birds are some common examples of giving protection which Tibetan Buddhists practice regularly. The giving of Dharma or sharing knowledge and showing the truth is considered to be the highest form of giving, as it can bring lasting results leading to enlightenment.

A beginner may give with the mistaken notion that there is a real giver, recipient, and the object given. However, the practice of giving only qualifies as the practice of the perfection of giving when there is no fixed notion of the giver, recipient, and the object given. A bodhisattva must be able to give without the thought or notion of the three factors—giver, recipient, and the thing given.

<h5>Discipline (''śīla'', ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་)</h5>

The discipline of the bodhisattva is often classified into three actions: abstaining from misdeeds, gathering virtues, and working for the welfare of sentient beings, as shown above. It is, in essence, the renunciation or giving up of negative thoughts, words, and deeds and the engagement in positive actions. A bodhisattva attains the perfection of discipline by perfecting the mind of such renunciation or relinquishment. As such, it serves as an antidote to immorality and unethical life.

Discipline is considered a fundamental basis for the growth of other virtuous qualities, just as the earth itself is important for cultivation. With discipline, one can engage in meditation and develop insight or wisdom. The practice of discipline includes both following the precepts and having the mental integrity to stick to the righteous course of actions.

In order to do so, Mahāyāna masters such as Śāntideva underscore the importance of vigilance or carefulness (''apramāda'', བག་ཡོད་), which is described in the Buddhist texts as a state of being attentive to what is to be adopted and what is to be abandoned. Śāntideva devotes the fourth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' to developing such carefulness or conscientiousness. Another crucial state of the mind is mindfulness (''smṛti'', དྲན་པ་). Mindfulness in this context refers to remembering and not forgetting "the dos and don'ts" with respect to one's moral conduct. It is important to always be mindful of the object and field of one's engagements. Introspection or alertness (''saṃprajanya'', ཤེས་བཞིན་) is another state of the mind which is crucial for bodhisattva discipline. Introspection watches the body, speech, and mind with alertness to check on what they are up to and how they are engaged.

These three aspects of the mind are crucial for a practitioner on the bodhisattva path. One must have mindfulness to be always aware of what is right or wrong, have vigilance and be very careful and heedful of the different areas of engagement, and maintain introspection to constantly watch one's mind, speech, and body.

Equipped with these tools, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must follow the precepts listed above after taking the bodhisattva vow. In addition, there are ten nonvirtuous actions to be eschewed and ten virtuous actions to be adopted as part of the general practice of Buddhist ethics. The ten nonvirtuous actions are:
#Taking life
#Taking what is not given
#Sexual misconduct for bodily actions
#Telling lies
#Creating discord
#Speaking harsh words
#Idle gossip for verbal actions
#Covetousness
#Malicious thoughts
#Wrong view for mental actions

As an antidote to these actions, a practitioner must adopt the ten virtuous actions:
#Protecting life
#Giving charity
#Practicing chastity for bodily actions
#Speaking the truth
#Making peace/conciliation
#Speaking kind words
#Engaging in useful speech for verbal actions
#Contentment
#Loving-kindness
#Right view for mental actions

There are many books in which a practitioner can find the moral precepts and code of ethics regarding a bodhisattva's behavior. These include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Compendium of Training'', as well as ''The Thirty-Seven Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ལག་ལེན་སོ་བདུན་མ།). These texts summarize the very detailed and scattered presentations of the bodhisattva discipline in the Mahāyāna sūtras. Besides the moral codes, it is also important to have an effective routine for the practice of bodhisattva discipline. A twenty-four-hour day is normally divided into six periods, or "watches," and specific bodhisattva activities are allocated during those watches. Such disciplinary rules, depending on individual circumstances and needs, should make the life of a bodhisattva highly conducive and productive for the practice of the bodhisattva path.

Finally, a very important part of the practice of discipline is the ritual of making amends when one violates the precepts either consciously or unconsciously. For the transgression of root downfalls, or major violations, a practitioner must promptly make confessions and reparations before the end of the watch which follows the watch in which the lapse took place. If the major violation is not amended before the end of the following watch, then the bodhisattva is required to take the vow again. In order to make amends for all violations, a bodhisattva is advised, as explained earlier, to recite ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps''.

<h5>Patience (''kṣānti'', བཟོད་པ་)</h5>
Patience is the third of the six perfections and is described as the hardest practice, one that requires unparalleled fortitude. In the philosophical descriptions one finds in the texts, patience is characterized by an undisturbed state of the mind. Not being agitated by conditions, particularly unpleasant ones, is the essence of patience. It serves as a counterforce to anger, which is a strong agitation of the mind and is considered to be the most heinous of evils.

First and foremost, the practitioner must reflect on the destructive nature of anger and the futility of getting angry. A moment of anger can consume the virtues accumulated throughout a thousand eons and cause great mental pain and discomfort. It deprives a person of peace and calm and the ability to work effectively. Like a bottle of muddy water shaken violently, an angry mind is disturbed and lacks composure and clarity to do anything effectively. On the contrary, patience brings mental calm and clarity. Śāntideva highlights the futility of getting upset in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as follows:
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Having developed the conviction that getting upset and angry is only harmful and that patience is beneficial for inner peace and productivity, one must cultivate a patient and forbearing mind. From a traditional Buddhist point of view, anger, as the most heinous evil, also leads to rebirth in the lowest hells, where one will be tormented by pain and agony for eons, while patience leads to happy rebirths and particularly to future lifetimes with outstanding physical beauty. Even in this life, a peevish and angry person, even if a generous patron, is loathed and feared by others for his or her short temper, but a tolerant and serene person enjoys admiration and respect from others. Thus, the need for patience.

The practice of patience is divided into three based on the object of patience.
#Patience in tolerating harm doers
#Patience in bearing hardship
#Patience in understanding the teachings

The beings who cause harm and annoyance are the most obvious and common objects toward whom one must practice patience. "Without enemies, to whom can one practice patience," goes a Tibetan Buddhist saying.<ref>Similar sayings appear in a number of works: Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa'') contains teachings about viewing enemies as valuable teachers for developing patience. The ''Thirty-Seven Practices of a Bodhisattva'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'') by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo contains similar teachings about viewing enemies as precious teachers. Likewise, such statements appear in chapter 6 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'') by Śāntideva.</ref> Such enemies and harm doers can be endless and diverse if one remains easily annoyed and irritable in one's own character. Śāntideva writes in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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Knowing that the main solution to the many harms in the world lies in patience and forbearance, a bodhisattva must tolerate harm doers and not be upset by their harmful actions. One can do so with the broad view that the harm may be a result of one's own karma in past lifetimes and not a fault of the harm doer. By tolerating a small harm or annoyance in this life, one can expiate the negative karma and escape the terrifying consequences in the future.

Another way to cultivate patience is to know that the persons causing harm often do so under the influence of other factors, including their inner emotions and circumstances, over which they have no control. Thus, it is absurd to get upset at a person instead of having pity and compassion for them. In fact, due to one's negative karma, a harm doer causes harm, but in doing so the harm doer commits negative karma and begets more suffering in the lower realms. So, in reality, one does even greater harm to the harm doer by responding with anger instead of compassion. Thus, it is not right to be angry or upset at the harm doer.

Moreover, an incidence of harm such as one's body being struck by an enemy using a weapon is a result of a combination of many factors, including the body, weapon, enemy, anger, etc. So, why put the blame only on the person and not on the weapon? Furthermore, why only blame others who brandish the weapon and not oneself who brandishes the body? One must own a share of responsibility for having a body so prone to agony like a running sore. Using such moral and logical arguments, as presented in Śāntideva's writings, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must practice tolerance and forbearance of harm caused by other beings.

Another cause of frustration and anger is suffering and dissatisfaction in life. Although there may not be any personal agency, sentient beings get upset and angry at undesirable situations, such as illness, hunger, thirst, pain, and not getting the things one desires. A person on the bodhisattva path must practice patience in bearing hardship and suffering without giving in to frustration and anger. For this, one must reflect on the nature of existence and how it is filled with suffering and problems. Life in samsara is riddled with problems by nature. Thus, it will be nonsensical to expect it to be otherwise and get upset about it. How silly would it be to get angry at fire for being hot by nature?

Moreover, pain and problems are also subjective. Depending on the state of their mind, some brave men become more valiant upon seeing their own blood dripping, while timid people even faint upon seeing the blood of others. Thus, a practitioner must learn to be stoic and to disregard irritation because the one who is peevish sees more harm. A practitioner must also realize that existing problems may be hard to bear, but they are only a minor pain compared to the pain which anger begets. Such pain, like a small surgery to treat a serious ailment, is beneficial in the long run. It is likened to a prisoner on death row being freed with an arm chopped off.

Thus, a practitioner must not only face problems in life with a calm mind but also view pain and suffering as an important catalyst for spiritual transformation. As Śāntideva writes:
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Moreover, people go through various hardships and suffering even for petty worldly reasons such as material profit, political power, fame, marriage, or religious worship. What need is there to mention then the value of having fortitude and practicing patience to benefit sentient beings and to take them to the state of full enlightenment? A true hero is therefore someone who defeats the inner foe of anger and maintains calm and compassion even in the face of tragedy and great harm. The rest who defeat their enemies Śāntideva likens to stabbing a corpse.

Just as one must endure problems and suffering in life, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must also foster the courage and conviction to accept and fathom the true nature of reality and to align one's thoughts and deeds with truth. A bodhisattva must train to understand the true nature of phenomena, such as the impermanence of conditioned things, the interdependence of all phenomena, the absence of an inherent self or person, the selflessness of phenomena, the illusory nature of the world, and the ineffable, unobstructed, empty, open nature of the ultimate reality free from all conceptual fabrication. Actual practice and meditation on the ultimate nature will be discussed below under the perfection of wisdom.

As the practice of the third type of patience, a bodhisattva endures to know the truth through a rational and analytical approach instead of taking things for granted. Critical inquiry and analyses, such as in the aforementioned example about a person hitting another with a weapon, helps one overcome mistaken assumptions and inherent bias and see the true nature of things. It is through knowing the true nature of reality that one can appreciate the nexus of causes and conditions and thus tolerate the harms and problems in life as well as transcend to a higher level of insight. Thus, a practitioner takes up the third type of patience by having the unrelenting commitment to and confidence in the bodhisattva path of wisdom and compassion. A bodhisattva remains steadfast in upholding compassion to help all sentient beings and firm in his or her understanding and realization of the way things are. With this, a bodhisattva is then never tired of engaging in selfless service and never affected by the challenges, misfortunes, and vagaries of life.

Śāntideva also advises practitioners, toward the end of the sixth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', to practice patience and tolerance toward sentient beings, including harm doers, because they serve as agents for spiritual transformation. Without beings, one cannot possibly pursue the Mahāyāna path of compassion and altruism. Just as the Buddha helps one accumulate merit as an object of veneration, sentient beings also help one accrue merit through patience, giving, etc. Moreover, it is in pleasing sentient beings that we find the best way to please buddhas, who wholeheartedly cherish them. Getting angry at beings or harming them would displease the buddhas. Thus, it is very important for a follower of the Buddha to love and respect sentient beings in order to truly remain faithful to the Buddha. Moreover, even sentient beings possess buddha-nature and are worthy of veneration, not disdain and disrespect. Adopting such outlooks, values, and reasoning, the follower of the bodhisattva path practices tolerance and patience.

<h5>Diligence (''vīrya'', བརྩོན་འགྲུས་)</h5>
The fourth perfection is the perfection of enthusiasm, zeal, effort, or diligence. In Buddhist philosophy, it is defined as zeal or joy in virtuous actions, and it serves as an antidote to indolence. Śāntideva remarks that just as there cannot be motion without wind, there cannot be merit without diligence. The cultivation of diligence entails giving up the three kinds of indolence:
#Laziness, which is to be in the state of lethargy, sloth, and boredom
#Despondency, which is to be inactive through diffidence and lack of energy
#Negative addiction, which is to be preoccupied by unwholesome things

Wholesome diligence functions as an antidote to these three kinds of indolence. In order to overcome the first type of indolence, which involves being lazy, lethargic, and uninterested, one must cultivate interest, enthusiasm, and motivation in wholesome activities. A person on the bodhisattva path must be physically and mentally agile, enterprising, and diligent. To do so, one must develop some degree of remorse for the current situation in samsara and aim to reach a higher state of being. The Tibetan Buddhist practice of the four points of mind turning, including reflecting on the rarity and preciousness of humanhood, the impermanence of life, the efficacy of the law of cause and effect, and the flaws of the cycle of existence can help generate enthusiasm and motivation to seek full enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings.

A practitioner must reflect on the fortunate state of having obtained the precious and rare human birth and of having good health and all other necessary circumstances for seeking the higher goal of enlightenment. Reflecting on the precious and rare nature of such an opportunity to seek enlightenment, a practitioner must immediately plunge into the practice of the bodhisattva path. If one does not do so, one must realize that such fortunate human existence is fragile and bound to change any time. One must meditate on the impermanence and fragility of life and on how death can happen anytime. Thus, one must not waste one's precious life in laziness, slumber, or distraction. Śāntideva warns against such waste in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.
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In addition to fostering enthusiasm and effort through reflection on the precious nature of humanhood and impermanence, a practitioner can also reflect on the law of cause and effect. One must realize that happy, desirable results come about only by investing in the necessary causes of happiness and that suffering arises from engaging in the causes of suffering. Fully aware of the infallible nature of cause and effect, a practitioner must enthusiastically engage in wholesome actions and work hard in order to reap a good result. A practitioner must work hard to abandon negative actions in order to escape from suffering and reach nirvana. Similarly, a practitioner must contemplate the flaws of rebirth in samsara, such as not getting what is desirable, getting what is not desirable, encountering those one dislikes, and separation from those one likes. Beings in the lower realms of existence are afflicted by multiple forms of suffering, beings in happy realms suffer from inevitable change in situations, and all beings suffer from the stress of the constant pursuit of happiness.

In the traditional reflection on the faults of the cycle of existence, a practitioner meditates on the suffering of heat and cold in the hell realms, hunger and thirst among hungry ghosts, exploitation and predation in the animal kingdom, illness and old age among humans, strife and warfare among demigods, and death and downfall in the celestial realms. These reflections and harsh life experiences help in engendering motivation and zeal to engage in virtuous actions and seek the higher goal of enlightenment. A practitioner must also reflect on the bodhisattva oath taken earlier to place all sentient beings in buddhahood and now put forth effort to walk the talk.

Having overcome the first problem of laziness and sloth through such reflections, a practitioner must work on the second problem of diffidence and despondency. A practitioner must think of the endless cycle of hard work ordinary beings undertake even for petty worldly benefit and compare that with the noble work a bodhisattva has to undertake for the greater benefit of the world. Thinking of this noble cause and the limited effort and time required for it, one must feel emboldened and encouraged to engage in bodhisattva practice. In the traditional Buddhist worldview, one has gone through immeasurable suffering in countless lifetimes, resulting in no real benefit. The hard work and sweat on the bodhisattva path, however, is a limited and small pain which can bring forth a greater long-term benefit, like the pain of an incision to cure a serious illness.

Moreover, in order to overcome a lack of confidence, a practitioner must realize that even an insect, having buddha-nature as its nature, can reach buddhahood through effort. What need, then, to mention a human being who has the rational and emotional capacity to attain enlightenment. If one is afraid of the difficult bodhisattva practices such as giving one's body and limbs, such practices become easy and enjoyable with practice and habituation. The Buddha prohibits a bodhisattva from undertaking any endeavor beyond his or her mental capacity.

Thus, the bodhisattva path, if one is well-equipped with wisdom and compassion, is not a difficult task but a very pleasant and enjoyable enterprise. Śāntideva writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Sin has been abandoned, thus there is no pain;
Through having wisdom there is no more sorrow. (7.27ab)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref>
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=What can sadden those who have compassion,
Who remain within saṃsāra for the sake of beings? (7.28cd)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref>
}}
Furthermore, Śāntideva asks: "Which thoughtful person riding the horse of bodhicitta and having no fatigue would become despondent in going from joy to joy?"<ref>''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' 7.30. See also Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref> He recommends the four forces of interest, steadfastness, joy, and relinquishment. One must cultivate the strong interest and wish to engage in virtuous actions, abandon negative actions, eliminate the suffering of sentient beings, and create happiness for all sentient beings. Such an interest is generated by thinking of the benefits of virtuous actions and the demerits of nonvirtuous actions. Once one has found such a strong interest and wish, one must remain firm and steadfast in the pursuit of happiness for all beings. One must maintain unwavering confidence and pride in the endeavor and not allow dejection and fatigue to set in. Taking up the challenge to defeat the negative emotions, a practitioner should not only remain steadfast but delve into the bodhisattva practice with joy and enthusiasm, like an elephant rushing to a lake in the midday heat or a gamer indulging in the game. Should a practitioner encounter insurmountable challenges or hardship or suffer from fatigue, then he or she should relinquish the specific task for the time being to be resumed at a later time when conditions are better.

Thus, a bodhisattva must adopt skill-in-means and be very strategic in terms of the appropriate investment of time and effort. Śāntideva also recommends the two strengths of earnestness and control to enhance the bodhisattva zeal. A bodhisattva must seek his or her objective with earnestness and immediate application. Just as a warrior who drops his sword in battle would pick it up promptly, and just as a young man would react quickly if a snake lands on his lap, a bodhisattva must act swiftly to achieve the goal. Similarly, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must have a sense of control and power over things. Feeling confident and empowered and remaining very agile and aware, a bodhisattva must engage in the practice with confidence and flair, like a lion in the midst of foxes, and with nimbleness and full control over one's body and mind, just like a wind controlling the movement of a piece of cotton on a branch.

A major hindrance to enthusiasm and diligence in bodhisattva practice is attachment to and engagement in worldly and negative distractions. Śāntideva warns the practitioner:
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Knowing that if one is careless, negative tendencies and distractions spread fast like poison in the blood stream, one must exercise great caution and mindfulness in fighting negative temptations and distractions. Being mindful of one's practice and reprimanding oneself for even minor lapses, one must guard one's mind and awareness from defiling emotions, just like one protects one's eyes from dust. A practitioner must diligently practice the bodhisattva path by eschewing attachment to all negative activities.

<h5>Meditation (''dhyāna'', བསམ་གཏན་)</h5>
Meditative concentration is the fifth perfection. It is defined in the classical texts as the state of the mind remaining focused without any distraction. It is the mental ability to remain focused, calm, and unperturbed, and it serves as an antidote to distraction. As a distracted mind is very prone to afflictive emotions and ineffective in accomplishing any tasks, it is very important to develop the meditative concentration of the mind. Only when the mind is focused and has attained calm abiding can it effectively develop insight into the nature of reality and thereby eliminate the afflictive emotions and negative thoughts. Śāntideva puts this clearly in the following verse, which is very frequently quoted:
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The process of pursuing meditative concentration normally begins with practice in solitude, where one's body is free from the frenzy of the world and one's mind is free from mental preoccupation. Śāntideva advises:
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For a beginner working on cultivating meditative concentration, the Buddhist masters advise practitioners to find solitude without disturbance and distraction and to take up solitary retreat. Whether one finds a brief period in one's daily schedule or finds free time to undertake a long retreat lasting weeks, months, or years, the main objective should be to settle the distracted mind and attain mental concentration or calm abiding. As the main reason for not finding time for such solitary practice and cultivating calm abiding is one's preoccupation with worldly affairs, a practitioner is first instructed to give up desire for worldly life, including attachment to people and pursuit of wealth, fame, and power. Masters such as Śāntideva present a compelling account of the futility of worldly endeavors, including relationships and business, and the stress, disappointment, and pain they lead to in this life and the many sufferings in future lifetimes. Talking about people, relationships, and property, Śāntideva writes:
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Śāntideva sums up the flaws of worldly desire in this way:
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With such instructions and admonitions, a practitioner is made to reflect on the worthlessness of the worldly pursuit of wealth, fame, power, and relationships and how they often fuel more greed and stress, creating a vicious cycle of pain and suffering. Thus, a person on the bodhisattva path is encouraged to seek something more meaningful and fulfilling. A practitioner who wishes to attain calm abiding through meditation must curb greed, have contentment, and devote time to meditation.

The actual practice of meditative concentration to develop calm abiding forms a fundamental Buddhist practice, and there are many different meditation traditions and techniques for carrying out the practice. The most common classical procedure is the nine-step meditation technique for establishing calm abiding. Below is a table showing the nine steps in three stages, with the five defects to be removed, the eight antidotes and six powers to be adopted, the four phases of contemplation, and the five signs of progress, as explained by the nineteenth-century Tibetan polymath Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912) based on his ''Gateway to the Way of the Learned'' (མཁས་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པའི་སྒོ།) and ''Heart of Luminosity: The General Meaning of the Essence of the Secret'' (གསང་བ་སྙིང་པོའི་སྤྱི་དོན་འོད་གསལ་སྙིང་པོ།).

[[File:Chart for Karma practice piece.png|900px|class=w-100 m-0 rounded-xl shadow|]]

The detailed instructions for the development of calm abiding can be found in many different texts and meditation traditions. All of them start with physical posture, the most common being the Vairocana posture with seven features, including (1) crossed leg, (2) straight back, (3) slightly tilted neck, (4) open shoulders, (5) eyes on the nose tip, (6) tongue touching upper palate with lips just touching each other, and (7) hands on the lap. Being comfortably and firmly seated to give stability to the body, one may carry out the breathing exercise to clear one's breath. With the body, breath, and the mind calm and clear, one then starts focusing on an object, whether it is an external object like an image or a twig, an internal object like bodily sensations or the breath, or an imaginary object like a deity or mantra one has visualized.

To kick off such a practice, one must overcome the obstacles of indolence and forgetfulness. A person indulging in laziness or forgetful of the instructions for meditation cannot even start the process. Thus, at this initial phase of preparing meditation, one must have strong faith, interest, enthusiasm, and willingness to undertake meditative concentration. One can develop these qualities by studying and learning about the benefits of meditation. Having overcome the obstacles, one starts the practice of meditation with the initial focus, the first of the nine steps.

The practitioner continues to focus on the object with care and exertion. As the beginner's mind will forget the object and get distracted, one uses mindfulness and reflection to continue the focus. When the mind is distracted from the object, one must bring it back and repeat the focus with introspection and concerted effort. Like a wild horse being controlled with bridle and reins, the mind should be trained using mindfulness and introspection. One must overcome not only the obstacle of distraction but also torpor and sleepiness. As one maintains and repeats the focus, one will notice the mind moving very fast and flying off in a flash. This is the first sign of progress called "the experience of motion." At this point, the mind is like a waterfall, restless and nonstop.

As one persists in focusing on the object using the tools of mindfulness and introspection, the mind begins to become calm and tamed. This is the second sign of progress called "the experience of attainment." Here, the mind is like a stream on a steep slope, moving constantly but at a slower pace. As one persists in taming the mind, the obstacles of distraction and torpor also subside, but one would still need to put forth effort to maintain the focus. Using reflection, mindfulness, and introspection, one must continue to focus and tame the mind. This will lead to the mind becoming very pacified and to the third sign of progress called "the experience of becoming accustomed." At this stage, the mind is like a river on the plains, seemingly still while looking from afar but still moving with strong currents. It is like a bee trapped in a vase, generally in one place but still with a lot of movement. The focus is sometimes interrupted, but one must put forth effort to get back to meditative concentration.

With sustained effort, one nears the final phase of meditative concentration when the mind is thoroughly pacified and one can focus without any interruption and exertion. At this stage, showing exertion and making a contrived effort are obstacles. Thus, one remains in single-pointed concentration without any contrived effort. One would have the fourth sign of progress called "the experience of stability." Now, the mind is like an ocean, calm and unshaken in the core but with some motion on the surface. As one remains in such a state with mental equanimity and becomes very familiar with it, one attains meditative equipoise, and one sees the fifth and final sign of progress called "the experience of the perfection of meditation." The mind remains undisturbed in all situations, like a mountain which is not shaken by the winds. There is no effort required to maintain the meditative equipoise, and the practitioner enjoys extreme bliss and agility of the body and mind.

Different schools teach different methods of developing single-pointed concentration, or calm abiding. A very well-known practice for calm abiding today is the mindfulness of the body, which is popularly known as a body scan. Here, one focuses on the sensations in the body, either gradually from the crown of the head to the heels or on a specific part of the body, to develop concentration. Another common practice is the concentration on one's breath, including inhalation and exhalation. There are many techniques of focusing on the breath as one exhales and inhales. Many traditions also use external objects such as images, twigs, pebbles, leaves, etc. as an object of concentration. In some Tibetan Buddhist traditions, a meditator trains first by using ordinary objects such as leaves and twigs and then meditates on the image of the Buddha as a whole or on parts of the image in sequence. One can also visualize a letter or a deity figure as an object of meditation for calm abiding. In the Vajrayāna tradition, it is very common to use a representation of a deity, either in the form of physical artwork or as a mental picture of a deity or mantra, in order to develop concentration and calm abiding. The process of the nine-step meditation to attain calm abiding is also represented in art, with a monkey symbolizing the distracting mode of the mind and an elephant symbolizing the sinking mode of the mind.

{{InlineImage
|float=right
|img=Nine Stages of Shamatha Practice.png
|width=500px
|caption=This thangka depicts the nine progressive stages of mental development. Source: [https://enlightenmentthangka.com/blogs/thangka/nine-stages-of-samatha-meditation?_pos=1&_sid=fbf1cb8ea&_ss=r Enlightenmentthangka.com]
}}

When one attains single-pointed concentration, the mind becomes pliable for spiritual transformation. This state of mind, considered to be equivalent to the mental state of beings in the highest desire realm, is the lowest form of concentration a practitioner needs to cultivate high spiritual realization and qualities. When such a state of mind is further sharpened, one acquires the mental states of the first, second, third, and fourth meditative absorptions with increasing levels of bliss, lucidity, pliability, and efficacy for spiritual transformation. These four states of meditative concentration are considered equivalent to the mental state of the four levels of the form realm in the psychophysical Buddhist cosmology. The power of concentration increases further with deeper levels of absorption. However, in the extreme form of quietest mental state in a sentient being associated with the highest formless realm of worldly existence, the mind is too deeply absorbed in meditation, rendering it too inactive and unviable for spiritual transformation.

Meditative concentration is thus divided according to the different levels of mental concentration. It is also classified into mundane meditative concentration and supramundane meditative concentration. If the meditative concentration is merely a calm state of the mind of a worldly person without the element of wisdom which discerns the nature of reality or truth, it is considered to be worldly meditative concentration. Such a state of the mind may be blissful and lucid, but it is bound to eventually return to an ordinary state of distraction and torpor. When the meditative concentration has the nature of reality as its object, it becomes an insight into truth and thus acquires the power of liberation. Such meditative concentration with truth as its object is a transcendent realization of truth and thus is considered to be the supramundane meditative concentration.

Meditative concentration is also divided into three categories:
#Meditative concentration abiding in peace in this life
#Meditative concentration which attains spiritual qualities
#Meditative concentration which works for sentient beings

The first type of meditative concentration is the mundane state of calm abiding. This comes with a blissful and peaceful experience for the meditator but is not instrumental in bringing about liberation, as it lacks insight. The second type is a meditative concentration informed by values and methods which have soteriological efficacy or some additional power to generate supernatural qualities. This type of meditative concentration can lead to supernatural powers such as clairvoyance or astral travel as well as higher qualities of enlightenment. The third type of meditative concentration is used to help sentient beings. The power of concentration helps one to perform miracles and create things which would benefit sentient beings.

The types of meditative concentration promoted in the Mahāyāna tradition are the second and third types, and the perfection of meditative concentration involves the application of a meditative concentration to the realization of the ultimate nature of things. Thus, it is a nonconceptual, open, and blissful cognitive equipoise which is free from all conceptual constructions and mental fabrications.

<h5>Wisdom (''prajñā'', ཤེས་རབ་)</h5>
The last and the most important of the six perfections is the perfection of wisdom. The sūtras on the perfection of wisdom claim that without wisdom none of the five other practices can really become a genuine practice of perfection. Thus, Śāntideva claims that the other perfections are means to the end, which is wisdom, for only wisdom can ultimately eliminate the root of suffering.
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Wisdom, in general, is the capacity for critical thinking and discernment of the way things are. Wisdom refers to the acute sense of judgement and sagacity when juxtaposed with compassion. However, in the specific context of Buddhist study and practice, wisdom refers to the understanding and realization of truth and the nature of reality, such as the knowledge and experience of nonself, impermanence, interdependence, and the emptiness of self-existence. In the Mahāyāna, the perfection of wisdom pertains to the knowledge and realization of the highest truth, the ultimate nature of things, whatever that is conceived to be in the particular tradition.

The Madhyamaka, or the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna and his followers, such as Candrakīrti, Śāntideva, Śāntarakṣita and Atiśa—the philosophical system with which the Tibetan Buddhist tradition of bodhicitta practice is associated—expounds the perfection of wisdom as the knowledge of the emptiness of all phenomena. Wisdom, in this system, refers to the penetrating insight into the ultimate truth, which is defined as emptiness free from all extremes or fabrications. In their ultimate nature, things are neither existent, nor nonexistent, both, or neither. Ultimate nature is beyond production and cessation, birth and death, time and space, thoughts and words. Śāntideva elucidates this point in the following verse:
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The world exists only on a relative level as mere designations and conventions. On their ultimate level, everything is empty of their own being, and the perfection of wisdom is the knowledge of such emptiness. Such wisdom, then, is cultivated initially through study, then through contemplation, and eventually through meditation. Thus, wisdom is often classified into three categories:
#Wisdom through study
#Wisdom through reflection
#Wisdom through meditation

A practitioner starts the practice of the perfection of wisdom by studying and understanding the ultimate truth of emptiness. The classic texts of the Middle Way school, such as Nāgārjuna's ''Root Verses on the Middle Way'' (''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''), Candrakīrti's ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''), Śāntarakṣita's ''Ornament of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakālaṃkāra''), and Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra''), present numerous reductive and analytical arguments to establish the empty nature of all phenomena. Among the many arguments, the following five are known as the great reasoning of the Middle Way. They establish the emptiness of the causes, effects, both causes and effects, the nature of things, and of all aspects of phenomena.
#A vase is empty of true arising because it does not arise from itself, another, both, or nothing.
#A vase is empty of true production because neither an existent effect nor a nonexistent effect, both, or neither is produced.
#A vase is empty of true arising because it neither arises instantly nor arises gradually.
#A vase is empty of true nature because it is without the nature of one or many.
#A vase is empty of true nature because they are dependently originated.

A student of the Middle Way uses these and numerous other logical arguments and analyses to fully understand the emptiness of all things, including emptiness itself. Through persistent study and reflection, a practitioner gains a deep understanding and confidence in the nature of emptiness. With further reflection and familiarization, the practitioner develops a strong conviction that gradually turns into a direct experience and realization of emptiness—the true form of the perfection of wisdom.

Śāntideva's chapter on wisdom in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' presents the cultivation of wisdom through the common Buddhist practice of nonself and the four points of mindfulness.

<h5>Meditation on the Nonself of a Person</h5>
A person on the bodhisattva path must investigate the existence of the self, or "I," to which one is very attached. It is from the mistaken notion of the "I" that the notions of you, he, she, and they arise in contrast to this notion of "I." Such dualistic clinging leads to a like for oneself and what belongs to oneself and a dislike for others. This launches the cycle of attachment, aversion, and other afflictive emotions and actions. It is essential for a practitioner on the path to enlightenment to investigate the existence of the self in order to uproot the cause of samsara. Śāntideva provides the following instructions for such a reductive examination:
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Carrying out such analysis, a practitioner must thoroughly understand the absence of a self, or "I," in all beings. In his ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', Candrakīrti presents the sevenfold reasoning of the chariot to establish the emptiness of self. A chariot does not truly exist because it is not (1) identical, (2) heterogeneous, (3) possessive, (4) the located, (5) the locus, (6) the shape, or (7) the collection of the parts. The chariot is a mere label given to the assembly of the parts with a specific shape and a specific function. There is no real chariot other than the parts, and the parts do not exist other than their own parts. Similarly, a person is a mere designation given to the assembly of psycho-physical constituents in a specific structure performing a specific function. There is no real person, and all things are empty of a self or what belongs to a self. Śāntideva compares the person to a banana plant.
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|quote-text=Wandering beings, thus, resemble dreams,
And also the banana tree, if you examine well. (9.150ab)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 158.</ref>
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Using such a rigorous analytical approach, a seeker of the perfection of wisdom must study and thoroughly understand the absence or emptiness of the self. The knowledge of nonself is an indispensable and central component of the Buddhist path to enlightenment. In Śāntideva's work and in the Middle Way school in general, such analyses and knowledge is further extended to understand the emptiness of all phenomena through the practice of the four points of mindfulness.

<h4>Mindfulness of the Body</h4>
A practitioner establishes the emptiness of the body by mentally dismembering the body in search of the body that we assume to really exist and that we deeply cherish. Śāntideva instructs a practitioner to look into the parts of the body in order to realize the emptiness of the body. The body does not exist either identical to or different from the parts. The same applies to the parts. He writes:
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The contemplation on the body helps one overcome one of the strongest fetters in existence: the attachment to the body. A bodhisattva must strive to give up attachment to the body and make use of it for the benefit of all sentient beings.

<h4>Mindfulness of Sensation</h4>
Another serious fetter in life is the attachment to pleasure and enjoyable sensations. Sentient beings crave pleasure and indulge in vices for pleasure. They hate pain and engage in negative actions to avoid pain and suffering. Thus, a practitioner of the bodhisattva path must see the empty nature of pleasure and pain. Śāntideva helps the practitioner investigate the experience of pain and pleasure by looking at the cause, effect, and nature of sensation.
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When one examines the nature of sensation, one can see that pain and pleasure are subjective, relative, and impermanent. If pain truly exists, there cannot be pleasure and vice versa. Because they rise and disappear like an illusion, there is no real pain or pleasure. Sensation arises from the encounter of senses and sense objects, but in reality we cannot see such an encounter or contact. One which has already touched cannot come into touch, and one which has not touched cannot contact either. Without contact, there cannot be sensation. Similarly, there is no agent or person who can create and feel sensation. Śāntideva states:
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In this manner, the practitioner on the bodhisattva path must contemplate the empty nature of sensation and see all pain and pleasure to be like a magical illusion.

<h4>Mindfulness of the Mind</h4>
Just as there is no real painful or pleasant sensation and feeling, there is no real consciousness or mind. Śāntideva states:
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The mind plays the central role in the Buddhist spiritual system as the root cause and foundation of all things, so much so that Buddhism is often called a science of the mind or an art of mind training. The Buddha has claimed that the mind is the chief and everything is mind-made. In this respect, the knowledge of the emptiness of the mind is the most important form of wisdom. Through realizing the empty nature of the mind, one can realize the emptiness of all phenomena, as all phenomena have their base in the mind.

The meditation on the empty nature of the mind is one of the most important practices in Mahāyāna Buddhism, particularly in the Middle Way school, and there are many different methods and techniques for this meditation. One method is to examine the spatial location of the mind. Buddhist thinkers and mystics argue that this thing called the mind cannot be found within the body, without, or in between. Śāntideva remarks:
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In the Mahāyāna pith instructions on the emptiness of the mind, or what is known as mind-pointing instructions in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, the master instructs the disciple to search for the mind inside the body, outside the body, and in between. A practitioner is asked to investigate the spatial location of the mind, only to realize that the mind has no spatial existence or dimension. Similarly, the disciple is made to examine the shape, color, structure, or nature of the mind through an instruction called "the destruction of the mind's structure." Through this the practitioner realizes that the mind does not have concrete existence and is utterly empty of an independent existence.

Not only is the mind or consciousness not found anywhere or in any shape or form, it also does not arise, as it cannot arise before, after, or at the same time as its object. A consciousness has to be conscious of an object, but in reality it cannot be conscious of an object which exists before, after, or at the same time as the consciousness itself. Moreover, if the object that is cognized, such as the body, does not exist, how can the consciousness which cognizes exist, for they are dependent on each other.

In another very popular meditation on the empty nature of the mind, a practitioner examines the temporal existence of mind. The past mind does not exist because it has already ceased to exist, and the future mind cannot exist, as it is yet to be. There is no present mind to be found in any shape or color in between the past and the present. Thus, no mind can be found to truly exist if one carefully examines the case.

The meditation on the empty nature of the mind using different techniques forms the most sacred and powerful practice of the perfection of wisdom in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions. More detailed and personalized instructions, often in the form of oral transmissions, are normally sought from individual teachers. Thus, a sketch is presented here, but a practitioner must rely on a specific teacher for proper guidance in following traditional procedures.

<h4>Mindfulness of Phenomena</h4>
The fourth point of mindfulness is the emptiness of all phenomena. Using the same reductive analyses applied to the body, sensation, and mind, a practitioner meditates on the absence of the true existence of all phenomena. One can use the great reasonings of the Middle Way to cultivate the understanding of the empty nature of all phenomena or use some other arguments and methods. There are also many other techniques, particularly those belonging to the Vajrayāna tradition, such as completion stage practices, dream yoga, luminosity practice, and meditation on empty form in the Kālacakra, Mahāmudrā, and Dzogchen traditions, which are powerful methods to realize the emptiness of all phenomena.

The most common and persuasive method found in the literature of the Middle Way school to establish the emptiness of all phenomena is the reasoning of dependent origination. All phenomena lack self-existence because they are either dependently produced (e.g., a plant from a seed, soil, moisture, and heat) or dependently conceived (e.g., the concept "here" and "there"). Śāntideva aptly demonstrates this through the example of a parent and a child.
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He goes on to state that the mind which analyzes and the phenomena which it investigates are also mutually dependent and therefore in reality without true independent existence. Thus, just as the mind did not exist, all phenomena which it takes as its object also do not exist. They are assumed to exist based on convention.
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<h4>Freedom from All Fabrications</h4>
Using numerous logical arguments containing a rigorous reductive analysis, a practitioner contemplates how the body, sensation, mind, and, for that matter, all phenomena do not exist in real terms. The external world of matter is made up of atoms, and the internal world of consciousness is made up of moments of cognitive flashes and impulses. Yet, if one investigates the atoms and moments of consciousness using the reductive process of examination, they cannot be found to truly exist. In the same way, neither can any process of production, cessation, coming, going, etc. be found to exist. We assume everything to exist on a conventional level for transactional purposes, but nothing exists on the ultimate level when thoroughly examined. Not even "nothing" exists.

The initial focus of the meditation on emptiness should be to negate existence because sentient beings are fraught with the notion that things really exist and are either attached or averse to them. After clinging to things as real, they give rise to defiling emotions such as attachment and fear, which in turn leads to negative actions and suffering. Thus, the practitioners must put their initial emphasis on establishing that things are empty of inherent self-existence or real nature. Much of the logical procedures and meditation instructions focus on eliminating the notion of existence, establishing that all phenomena are empty of real existence, and revealing/concluding that all empirical experiences are like magical illusions and reflections in a mirror. They appear but are empty of real existence.

After one has negated the notion of existence and grasped the emptiness of things, it is also important to go beyond emptiness, for emptiness is also unreal and only a relative concept. How can there be nonexistence without existence? Just as there is no father without a child or here without there, emptiness is dependent on the nonempty. If the nonexistent does not exist, emptiness can't exist either. In this way, a practitioner drops both the notion of existence and nonexistence, being and nonbeing, is and is not, the nonempty and empty, production and nonproduction, etc.

In the final ontology of the Middle Way, one must reject any instances of a real existence, nonexistence, both, or neither. A practitioner must transcend all four mental fabrications of being, nonbeing, both and neither. Everything, including emptiness itself, is utterly empty and nonapprehensible, akin to the bare, clear openness of space. Only when the mind is free from fixation on a thing, non-thing, or neither does it naturally rest in its true state of peace, free from the slightest tension, stress, and apprehension. Only then can one effectively cut through the habitual propensities for self-love, attachment, hatred, stupidity, jealousy, etc.

It is said in ''The King of Meditation Absorption Sūtra'' (''Samādhirājasūtra''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=What is "existence" and "nonexistence" are both extremes; so are "purity" and "impurity" extremes. Therefore, abandoning the extremes of both, the wise surely should not abide even in the middle.<ref>''yod dang med ces bya ba gnyi ga mtha<i>'</i>''/ /''gtsang dang mi gtsang 'di yang mtha' yin te''/ /''de phyir gnyis ka'i mtha' ni rnam spangs nas''/ /''mkhas pa dbus la'ang gnas par yong mi byed''/ /. See ''Samādhirājasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos thams cad kyi rang bzhin mnyam pa nyid rnam par spros pa ting nge 'dzin gyi rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D127, mdo sde, vol. 55, da, fol. 27a. http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0127.</ref>
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In the ultimate meditation on wisdom, the practitioner immerses him or herself into a deep experience of emptiness with no sense of engagement or withdrawal, acceptance or rejection, likes or dislikes, pleasure or pain. During the postmeditation state, the practitioner is constantly aware of the illusory nature of things. Sustained practice of such meditation on emptiness and postmeditation awareness, Śāntideva points out, would not only help the person face the ups and downs of life with the same level of ease and equanimity but also induces an intense surge of compassion for the beings who are drowning in the sea of suffering. It inspires one to work evermore to free other beings who are caught in the prison of ignorance, mistakenly holding illusory and empty things to be real. Just as compassion for other beings leads to developing the wisdom to see things as they really are, wisdom and insight into the true nature of things helps enhance the vigor of compassion for all beings, thereby having wisdom and compassion mutually strengthen each other.
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བྱང་སེམས་ཆོས་མཛོད།/བློ་སྦྱོང་སྒོམ་རིམ་མན་ངག་སྐོར།/Feedback 1

2026-08-25T10:42:06Z

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Practice/Bodhicitta in Practice

2026-08-20T06:23:07Z

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{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|sub-theme=Bodhicitta in Practice
|watermark=Practice
|TermTopics=Debate; Compassion; Arousing Bodhicitta; Protecting Bodhicitta; Increasing Bodhicitta; Six Perfections; Tonglen; Aspirational Bodhicitta; Active Bodhicitta; Equanimity; Equalizing and Exchanging Self and Others; Seven-Point Instructions of Cause and Effect; Four Immeasurables
|main-text={{Jumbo
|full-width=yes
|image=File:TKP-Pawo-Print-6TKP10751.web .jpg
|imageposition=70% 50%
|text=Bodhicitta—the altruistic intention to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all beings—is essential in Mahāyāna Buddhist practice. It is regarded as the defining motivation that transforms any spiritual activity into a genuine Mahāyāna path. Without bodhicitta, progress toward buddhahood is considered impossible. Cultivating bodhicitta involves reflection, meditation, ethical conduct, and guidance from qualified teachers, and is formalized through the bodhisattva vow. Its continual practice is seen as the foundation and driving force for all Mahāyāna spiritual development.
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<h2>[[The Bodhicitta Prayer]]</h2>
<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་རིན་པོ་ཆེ། །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">May the sublime and precious bodhicitta</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">མ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས་སྐྱེས་གྱུར་ཅིག །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">Arise in those in whom it has not arisen.</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">སྐྱེས་པ་ཉམས་པ་མེད་པར་ཡང་། །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">Where it has arisen, may it never decline</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">གོང་ནས་གོང་དུ་འཕེལ་བར་ཤོག །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">But grow and flourish more and more.</div>

<h2>Introduction</h2>

The application of bodhicitta in practice is central to the Mahāyāna pursuit of full enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. According to Mahāyāna masters, bodhicitta is a prerequisite for a practice or path to qualify as a Mahāyāna path leading to the state of a fully awakened buddha. Only when the practice is motivated or informed by bodhicitta (བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་རྩིས་ཟིན་པ་) can it be considered as a bona fide part of the Mahāyāna path. Thus, the masters strongly recommend the cultivation of the altruistic thought of bodhicitta before beginning any project or activity. This is because, in the Buddhist system, the moral value of an action is determined by the quality of intention or the state of the mind.

Buddhist masters teach that mind can be in any of these three states:
#A virtuous state with positive thoughts and emotions, such as thirst for knowledge, devotion, compassion, love, etc.
#A nonvirtuous state with negative thoughts and emotions, such as arrogance, hatred, jealousy, etc.
#A neutral state with neither positive nor negative states of mind.

Furthermore, the virtuous mind can be of three types:
#An inferior mind wishing happiness and well-being in this mundane world.
#A middling mind wishing a higher state of lasting happiness, fulfillment, and freedom beyond the ordinary world.
#A superior mind wishing a higher state of lasting happiness for all sentient beings.

This last superior mind is bodhicitta and the one recommended by the Mahāyāna masters before beginning any project or activity.

Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, a twentieth-century teacher of bodhicitta, thus writes in ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta'' (བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་བསྟོད་པ་རིན་ཆེན་སྒྲོན་མ།):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Should one launch something, launch with bodhicitta.
Should one think of something, think of bodhicitta.
Should one analyze something, analyze with bodhicitta.
Should one examine something, examine with bodhicitta. (v. 98)<ref>''brtsam na byang chub sems las brtsam''// ''bsam na byang chub sems nyid bsam''// ''dpyad na byang chub sems su dpyad''// ''brtag na byang chub sems la brtag''//. Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Dga' ldan pho brang, 2018), 29, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8LS66303.</ref>
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Patrul Rinpoche, a paragon of bodhicitta practice in nineteenth-century Tibet, also proclaimed in his ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (བསྐལ་མང་གོང་ནས་སོགས།):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood. (v. 6)<ref>''yod na sangs rgyas sgrub la des chog cing''/ /''med na sangs rgyas sgrub la thabs chags pa''/ /''sangs rgyas 'grub pa'i sa bon ma nor ba''/ /''rnam dag byang chub sems mchog bskyed par shog''. See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Bskal mang gong nas sogs'', in Gsung 'bum o rgyan 'jigs med chos kyi dbang po (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 8: 356, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW24829_B101CB.</ref>
}}
In the beginning, a practitioner must cultivate the mind (''cittotpāda'') of awakening through a concerted effort by taking the bodhisattva vow repeatedly, engaging in the various contemplative techniques, receiving teachings on bodhicitta and bodhisattva practices, and utilizing other methods. Gradually, one would become accustomed to thinking of bodhicitta, which would also become stronger and constant. When bodhicitta naturally arises without effort, a person is said to have formally become a bodhisattva. Thus, Jigme Lingpa said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=It is more important to have the supreme mind naturally arise than to consciously cultivate it.<ref>Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod kyi rgya cher 'grel pa bden gnyis shing rta rgyu mtshan nyid kyi theg pa'i skor'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (Gangtok, Sikkim: Sonam T. Kazi, 1970–75), 1: 246b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG10193_E90C9C.</ref>
}}
However, a beginner must make a contrived effort to generate bodhicitta, firstly by cultivating the aspiring bodhicitta and then by engaging in the practice of engaged bodhicitta. Śāntideva presents the distinction between the two in the following verses from his text ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra''):
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One must first have the thought to take all sentient beings to the state of the Buddha just as one must first have the thought to go to Bodh Gaya before one starts the journey. Having generated the strong motivation to take all sentient beings to buddhahood, one must then engage in the actual paths and practices which lead them to the goal. The bodhisattva road consists of a long and arduous practice of the six perfections: giving, discipline, patience, effort, meditation and wisdom. These six topics cover the entire range of practices a person must take up as a bodhisattva to reach buddhahood. They also include the practice of both relative bodhicitta, or the moral mental resolve to take all sentient beings to the state of full awakening, and ultimate bodhicitta, which is the deep understanding and experience of the ultimate nature of all things.

<h2>Generating Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Vow</h2>
A beginner on the Mahāyāna path cultivates the thought of awakening by repeatedly wishing to take all sentient beings as vast as space to the unsurpassed, complete, and perfect state of the Buddha. To formally confirm such desire and express it as a commitment, a beginner undertakes the confirmation of the thought of awakening through a ritual of oath-taking. The first step in the procedure of such a ritual, and in fact in the general Buddhist process of self-transformation, is the reflection on the wonderful physical and psychological conditions one possesses as an able human being.

<h3>Physical Support</h3>
The meditation or reflection on the rarity and preciousness of humanhood is the first topic of meditation in almost all Tibetan Buddhist traditions when one starts a practice or meditation program. One must reflect, from different perspectives, on how humanhood, with its unique freedoms and advantages, is hard to find, and how it is a precious opportunity to seek enlightenment. Human existence offers a powerful combination of rational thinking and emotional capacity, creating ideal conditions to pursue the end of suffering and attain ultimate happiness.

Buddhist texts present the following hypothetical analogy to illustrate this rarity. Suppose a blind turtle lives at the bottom of an ocean and comes to the surface only once every hundred years. Meanwhile, floating on the ocean's surface is a wooden yoke being constantly swayed by the waves. Human birth, it is argued, is rarer than the chance of this turtle, during its brief surface visit, happening to put its neck directly through this floating yoke. Using such examples and many other methods, one is made to see the preciousness of human birth.

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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Khandro Rinpoche: <em>What Is a Precious Human Life?</em>
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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Thubten Chonyi: <em>The Four Thoughts That Turn the Mind to the Dharma</em>
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Such a human state is not only rare and precious but very fragile. As such, one should meditate on the certainty of death and the uncertainty of when and how it will come. A student carries out meditation on the impermanence of life in order to cherish momentary existence and urgently make the best use of it. Meditation on the rarity of human existence and its impermanent nature is often followed by meditation on the law of cause and effect and the flaws of the cycle of existence, also known as samsara. If one does not take advantage of this fleeting human state to break the cycle of rebirth, one is bound to follow the law of cause and effect, and given the negative actions accumulated in innumerable lifetimes in the past, one is bound to remain trapped in this cycle of existence, which is filled with misery and pain. These four points of meditation, which often constitute the first set of topics for meditation in Tibetan Buddhism, are known as the four points of mind turning (བློ་ལྡོག་རྣམ་པ་བཞི་), as they turn one's mind away from the cycle of ordinary existence and are considered to be foundational practices on the spiritual path.

<h3>Mental Support</h3>
Along with holding dear the precious state of humanhood, one must also cherish and take advantage of the brief mental moments of positive thought and moral growth. Śāntideva writes in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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In the chaos of samsara, with its endless mundane preoccupations and unrelenting ignorance, it is rare to have clear virtuous thoughts. If they happen to occur briefly through the blessings of the Buddha, they fade away as quickly as they appear. Thus, it is important to grasp the opportunities when they appear.

Among the various kinds of virtuous thoughts, righteous ''faith'' is fundamental for generating the thought of awakening. It is important to have faith and trust in the Buddha, his teachings, and those following his teachings with proper understanding. Above all, it is important to develop faith and trust in the state of enlightenment, or buddhahood, in the noble qualities and characteristics buddhahood comes with, and in the compassionate engagements of the bodhisattvas. It is mainly through such faith and the knowledge gained through study, reflection, and teachings that one would seriously take up the project of generating the thought of awakening. Thus, the Buddha advises in ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having faith in the Buddha and the qualities of the Buddha,
In the conducts of the heirs of the Buddha,
And in the unsurpassed state of enlightenment,
The superior beings generate the thought of enlightenment.

Faith is a prerequisite, like a mother who nurtures.
It protects and enhances good qualities.<ref>''Ratnolkādhāraṇī'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa dkon mchog ta la la'i gzungs zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D145, mdo sde, vol. 57, pa, fol. 63b, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0145.</ref>
}}
Citing such verses, a teacher often elaborates on the benefits of having faith and its crucial role in spiritual transformation with the aim of helping a student generate faith in the teacher, teachings, paths, and results. There is a popular Tibetan saying that goes: "For the hook of the Buddha's compassion to catch hold, sentient beings need the ring of faith." Another popular Buddhist statement found in ''The Sūtra of Ten Dharmas'' (''Daśadharmakasūtra'') says, "A person without faith cannot give rise to positive things just as a burnt seed won't produce a green sprout."<ref>''dad pa med pa'i mi la ni''/ /''dkar po'i chos rnams mi skye ste''/ /''me yis sa bon tshig rnams la''/ /''myu gu sngon po ji bzhin no''//. See ''Daśadharmakasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos bcu pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D53, dkon brtsegs, vol. 40, kha, fol. 166a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0053. See also ''Mañjuśrī Root Tantra'' (''Āryamañjuśrīmūlatantra'', ''<i>'</i>Phags pa 'jam dpal gyi rtsa ba'i rgyud'', in Derge Kangyur D543, rgyud, vol. 88, na, fol. 159b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0543.</ref>

A more specific faith required in this case is the faith and trust in the value and merits of the thought of awakening so that one would seek it earnestly. For this reason, many sūtras and masters like Śāntideva extol the power of bodhicitta as a source of incredible merit and benefit. It is recommended that a student repeatedly reflect on the merits of bodhicitta and generate great interest in and high regard for the thought of awakening, resulting in a strong enthusiasm to cultivate it.

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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
|id=VHThg29QpSs
|caption=Venerable Thubten Chodron: <em>On Faith</em>
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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
|id=Oa5uqvdTDXw
|caption=Geshe Kelsang Wangmo: <em>Buddhism Says Don't Have Faith? The Radical Teaching That Changes Everything</em>
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Another fundamental emotion one must cherish and cultivate as a condition for the thought of awakening is ''compassion'', an intense wish to free all sentient beings from suffering and the causes of suffering. Compassion is considered to be the root of the thought of awakening, which is defined as having the two components of compassion and wisdom. Compassion feels the suffering of sentient beings, and wisdom understands the perfect state of the Buddha as the ultimate freedom from suffering. Students are instructed to cultivate compassion, and teachers use different methods, including storytelling, as a way to engender compassion and convince students of its spiritual efficacy and power.<ref>Read about the power of compassion through Asaṅga's story. For example, see Lama Chimpa and Alaka Chattopadhyaya, trans., ''Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India'', ed. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990), 154–58, https://archive.org/details/TaranathasHistoryOfBuddhismInIndia/page/n183/mode/2up.</ref> Motivated by the intense compassion to deliver sentient beings from suffering and the deep faith in buddhahood as the ultimate state of deliverance, one must have an earnest wish to seek the state of the Buddha.

<h3>Preceptorial Support</h3>
Just as a person on a long and arduous journey to an unknown place needs a good guide, it is vital to have a knowledgeable and experienced teacher to guide the student on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Such a spiritual master is often called a ''kalyāṇamitra'', or virtuous friend. In ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra''), the Buddha compares such a master to a mother who gives birth, a father who attends to the child's welfare, a nanny who constantly looks after the child, a guide who shows the path, a doctor who heals, a guard who protects, etc.<ref>''rigs kyi bu khyod kyis bdag la ni nad par 'du shes bskyed do''/ /''dge ba'i bshes gnyen la ni sman pa'i 'du shes dang''/ ''gdams ngag la ni sman gyi 'du shes dang''/ ''nan tan nyams su blang ba la ni nad 'tsho ba'i 'du shes bskyed par bya'o''/. ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' makes up the lengthy final chapter of ''The Sūtra of the Ornament of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhāvataṃsakamahāvaipūlyasūtra''). For this passage, see ''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtrāt gaṇḍavyūhasūtraḥ paṭalaḥ'' (''Shin tu rgyas pa chen po'i mdo sangs rgyas phal po che zhes bya ba las sdong pos brgyan pa'i le'u ste bzhi bcu rtsa''), in Derge Kangyur D44, phal chen, vol. 38, nga, fol. 286b–287a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/WA0RK0044-45.</ref>

Many Buddhist writings discuss the qualities and character of a spiritual teacher, how to find and follow such a teacher, and the numerous benefits of following the teacher. In ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', Śāntideva describes the teacher for someone on the Mahāyāna path as having two qualities.
{{PullBcaVerses|5.102}}
A teacher must be very learned in the Mahāyāna system and also practice the path with integrity. Maitreya describes the Mahāyāna teacher as having nine qualities in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtra'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Follow a teacher who is disciplined, gentle and fully at peace,
Who has superior qualities, diligence, and knowledge of scriptures,
Who has realized the truth, and is skilled in speech,
And one who is an epitome of love, and indefatigable.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde'i rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, sems tsam, vol. 123, phi, fol. 25b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref>
}}

As one begins the process of a bodhicitta practice, it is important to have a teacher for the ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow. In ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya''), Śāntideva highly recommends having a teacher bestow the bodhisattva vow in person, as such a presence would strengthen the process of taking the vow and also subsequently help one to observe the precepts carefully. If one cannot find or access a teacher who can administer the vows, one can either take the vow in the presence of holy shrines and objects or by visualizing the buddhas and bodhisattvas before oneself. However, this is more difficult for a beginner, particularly when carrying out the ritual according to the Vast Conduct tradition, in which the process of granting the vow for the engaged bodhicitta is mainly composed of reading out the lines for oath-taking by a preceptor or officiant. Thus, having a teacher is important for the process of taking the bodhisattva vow, but the role of the teacher extends beyond the initial ritual of taking the vow and spans the entire journey to perfect enlightenment.

As one greatly benefits from the presence and guidance of a teacher, one can have many teachers, as did Sudhana, the son of a merchant whose story is told in ''The Stem Array Sūtra''. Instructed by Mañjuśrī, Sudhana travels from place to place seeking 110 teachers before he arrives in the presence of Maitreya. Like the case of Sudhana, the teachers guide the student on the spiritual path throughout the entire journey, and the student must follow the teacher with great devotion and trust. In ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', the young man Śrīsambhava and the girl Śrīmati give Sudhana a long discourse on the benefits of following a teacher and the manner in which one must follow a teacher. They advise Sudhana to see himself as a sick person, the teacher as a doctor, the teachings as medicine, and the adoption of the teachings into practice as the treatment leading to the cure.<ref>''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtrāt gaṇḍavyūhasūtraḥ paṭalaḥ'' (''Shin tu rgyas pa chen po'i mdo sangs rgyas phal po che zhes bya ba las sdong pos brgyan pa'i le'u ste bzhi bcu rtsa''), in Derge Kangyur, D44, phal chen, vol. 38, a, fol. 287a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/WA0RK0044-45.</ref> This is one of the most powerful similes to illustrate one's relationship with a teacher.

<h3>The Procedure for Taking the Vow</h3>
There are two different Mahāyāna traditions for the ritual of administering and taking the bodhisattva vow. One is the ritual adopted in the Profound View tradition (ཟབ་མོ་ལྟ་བརྒྱུད་, pronounced "Zabmo Tagyu") coming down from Nāgārjuna and his followers, and the other is the ritual passed down in the Vast Conduct (རྒྱ་ཆེན་སྤྱོད་བརྒྱུད་, pronounced "Gyachen Chogyu" or "Gyachen Chopegyu") tradition from Maitreya, Asaṅga, and their followers. While the two traditions share the overall framework of the oath-taking ritual, the liturgies and fine points of procedures vary between them. Today, verses from the second and third chapter of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' are used commonly as the standard liturgy for the bodhisattva vow ritual in the Profound View tradition. This procedure is based on what was practiced in the old Kadam tradition and later promoted by Patrul Rinpoche.

The Vast Conduct tradition uses a different set of recitations in prose to take the vow of aspiring bodhicitta and a set of questions and answers for the engaged bodhicitta vow as passed down from Atiśa. Kongtrul Lodrö Taye presents detailed liturgies and explanations for both traditions in the third volume of his Treasury of Precious Instructions (གདམས་ངག་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་མཛོད།).<ref>For vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions, see Tsadra's Damngak Rinpoche Dzö website, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/DNZ-03-GA-001. For an English translation of the third volume, see Artemus B. Engle, trans., ''Kadam: Stages of the Path, Mind Training and Esoteric Practice, Part 1,'' vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet (Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod), compiled by Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (Boulder, CO: Snow Lion, 2024).</ref>

{{Standout|'''An example of a text for taking the vow can be found here:'''
:[[Articles/The_Ritual_for_the_Bodhisattva_Vow_Arranged_according_to_the_Tradition_of_Patrul_Rinpoche_(Chatral_Rinpoche_2008)|༄༅། །བྱང་སྡོམ་བླང་ཆོག་དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་གསུང་རྒྱུན་ལྟར་བཀོད་པ་བཞུགས་སོ། །]]
:[[Articles/The_Ritual_for_the_Bodhisattva_Vow_Arranged_according_to_the_Tradition_of_Patrul_Rinpoche_(Chatral_Rinpoche_2008)|The Ritual for the Bodhisattva Vow]]
:Arranged According to the Tradition of Patrul Rinpoche
:by Chatral Rinpoche}}

<h4>The Seven-Limb Prayer</h4>
The actual act of taking the bodhisattva vow is normally preceded by the seven-limb practice, which includes prostration, offering, confession, rejoicing, requesting to teach, requesting to live long, and dedication of merits. This standard ritual of worship is said to help the candidate gain the required karmic merit and overcome obstacles so as to become a ready recipient of the bodhisattva vow. The verses from ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions"'' (''Bhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja'') are widely used as a chant for carrying out the seven-limb prayer.

In order to conduct the bodhisattva vow ritual, one should first set up a physical shrine with a clean and beautiful array of offering materials, such as water, flowers, incense, food, etc., and bless them with mantras for offerings. One may also visualize such a shrine and the range of offerings. The buddhas, bodhisattvas, and all enlightened and righteous spiritual beings are then invited to the sacred space to bestow the bodhisattva vow.

<h5>1. Prostration</h5>
The practice of prostration is carried out mentally with or without physical prostration and is often accompanied by chanting verses. A practitioner normally does a simple prostration of devotion to the buddhas and bodhisattvas by bowing down and touching the ground with one's forehead, palms, and knees. One imagines that one's negativities of the body, speech, and mind, and the five poisons of ignorance, attachment, aversion, jealousy, and pride are cleansed as one bows down, and the blessings of the enlightened body, speech, mind, qualities, and activities of the Buddha are received when one stands up.

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In a more advanced practice of prostration, one can mentally multiply one's body into countless numbers and make prostrations to buddhas in all directions. The highest form of prostration is said to be the practice of making prostration with no fixed concept or notion of the subject making the prostration, the object to whom the prostration is made, and the actual action of prostration. Everything is seen as an illusory flux with no self-existence, like a dream.

<h5>2. Offering</h5>
Prostration is followed by the practice of offerings. One can set up an array of offerings of actual things one possesses, including food, drinks, flowers, incense, etc. One can also make offerings of beautiful lands, waterfalls, streams, birds, flowers, jewels, riches, and other pleasant things which exist in the world but are not personally owned. In addition, one can make offerings of wonderful things through visualization, such as offerings of celestial showers or feasts to the buddhas and bodhisattvas. The magnificent offerings, real or imaginary, can be further multiplied to fill the universe in all directions.

A common all-inclusive offering is the offering of the ''maṇḍala'', or the universe with all the riches and pleasant objects in it. A practitioner visualizes the entire universe by making a hand gesture of it or by holding a replica of the world as presented in the ancient Indian cosmology. There are short and long versions of liturgies for making the maṇḍala offering.

Śāntideva also provides verses to make the offering of one's body, enjoyments, and virtues. He mentions these three sets of possessions in both his works, ''The Compendium of Training'' and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva emphatically encourages the aspiring bodhisattva to give away these three possessions—which are the main objects of attachment and the main cause of self-centricity and its corollary problems—for the sake of all sentient beings. The offering of one's body, enjoyments, and virtues comprise the giving away of the most cherished physical and psychological properties.

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|id=6p1rs7fTPtE
|caption=Venerable Thubten Chodron: <em>The Maṇḍala Offering Explained</em>
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|id=2a7FFoFx92w
|caption=Ringu Tulku: <em>Why Do We Do Offerings?</em>
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<h5>3. Confession</h5>
Offering, which helps one accrue karmic merit, is followed by the practice of confession, which removes the karmic impurities that can obstruct the cultivation of the thought of awakening. Using various texts such as ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps'' (''Triskandhakasūtra''), ''General Confessions'' (སྤྱི་བཤགས།), and verses from chapter 2 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', one must confess and make amends for one's bodily, verbal, and mental wrongdoings, which include committing sinful actions or violating a precept one has promised to observe.

The confession must possess the four characteristics known as the ''four powers'' to become effective: intense remorse, sincere restoration, remedial action, and reliable support.

<h5>4. Rejoicing</h5>
The fourth limb of the practice is to rejoice in the good works of both oneself and others. From the enlightened activities of the buddhas of the three times and the virtuous activities of all saints to the wholesome deeds of all beings, one must feel proud of them and truly rejoice in them. Rejoicing in good works is considered to be an easy way to gain merit.

<h5>5. Requesting to Teach</h5>
It is the light of Dharma that is required to clear ignorance, the root cause of suffering. Yet, the teachers are reluctant to teach without earnest interest from the students, as the truth is profound and sentient beings are generally preoccupied with vanity. Thus, in the manner of Brahmā and Indra requesting the Buddha to stop his silence after his enlightenment and teach, a student must request the buddhas and teachers to teach or turn the wheel of Dharma.

<h5>6. Requesting to Live Long</h5>
The Buddha is said to have extended his life after receiving the request to live longer. As the existence in samsara is marred with pain and suffering, the enlightened beings who have attained the power to transcend the ordinary cycle of rebirth are said to often choose to exit from worldly existence and enter nirvana. Thus, the buddhas and masters are requested to not enter the state of nirvana but to remain in the world for the benefit of sentient beings.

<h5>7. Dedication</h5>
Finally, one takes the merit accumulated from the six above-mentioned practices and all the other merit one has accumulated and dedicates that to the welfare of sentient beings. This is done with the following prayer: "May these virtuous actions help sentient beings reach the complete and perfect state of the Buddha."
The seven-limb prayer is often carried out by chanting the verses from ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions,"''<ref>See Rigpa Translations, trans., ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions"'' (''Zangchö Mönlam'') (Lotsawa House 1996), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/words-of-the-buddha/samantabhadra-aspiration-good-actions.</ref> which are taken from ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' from the Buddhāvataṃsaka collection. The verses from chapter 2 and 3 of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' are also used as a liturgy for conducting the seven-limb prayer.

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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Venerable Thubten Chodron: <em>The Seven-Limb Prayer - Prostration. Click here for her entire series on the Seven-Limb Prayer.</em>
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|caption=Alexander Berzin: <em>The Seven-Limb Prayer by Śāntideva</em>
|captionLink=Media/Alexander_Berzin:_The_Seven-Limb_Prayer
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<h4>Mind Training</h4>
Having accumulated the required resources of merit and having removed the obstacles through the seven-limb prayer, one then prepares the state of one's mind. Just as a field is tilled to prepare it for planting, one makes one's mind conducive and pliable for the cultivation of bodhicitta.

There is a wide range of practices for mind training before and after taking the bodhisattva vow. Here, Patrul Rinpoche adopts the earnest arousal of the ''four immeasurable thoughts'' to prepare the mindset. They are loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, which are cultivated through the following wishes respectively.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=May all sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness.
May all sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering.
May all sentient beings be never separated from sacred joy.
May all sentient beings be free from attachment, aversion, partiality and abide in great equanimity.
}}
Following the cultivation of these four immeasurable thoughts, one must also cultivate the strong resolve to forsake everything for the sake of all sentient beings. One can chant the following verse and verses 12–22 of chapter 3 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
{{PullBcaVerses|3.11}}

<h4>The Actual Taking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h4>
There are two sets of liturgies for the actual taking of the bodhisattva vow passed down from the two main Mahāyāna traditions. Today, the Profound View tradition mainly uses the verses from chapter 2 and 3 of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', while the Vast Conduct tradition uses lines from Atiśa's ''Ritual Procedures for the Generation of the Mind and Vows'' (''Cittotpādasaṃvaravidhikrama'').<ref>See Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna, ''Cittotpādasaṃvaravidhikrama'' (''Sems bskyed pa dang sdom pa'i cho ga'i rim pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3969, dbu ma, vol.112, gi, fols. 245a2–248b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3969. For an English translation of the text (with Wylie), see Richard Sherburne, trans., ''The Complete Works of Atīśa, Śrī Dīpaṁkara Jñāna, jo-bo-rje: The Lamp for the Path and Commentary, Together with the Newly Translated Twenty-five Key Texts'' (New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2003), 536–51.</ref>

Although in some practices the ritual of taking refuge is added to the seven-limb prayer, making it an eight-limb prayer, as we find in the case of Śāntideva's and Atiśa's texts, most traditions have the verse for taking refuge chanted just before taking the bodhisattva vow. In this way, one takes the vow of refuge as well as the bodhisattva vow in one session.

In the Profound View tradition, the vows for both aspiring and engaged bodhicitta are taken in one session, while in the Vast Conduct tradition the two types of bodhisattva vows are taken separately. In the former tradition, the presence of a physical teacher is not essential, although that is preferred and highly recommended. In the latter tradition, as the second vow of engaged bodhicitta is taken mainly through a Q&A, there is a need for an officiant in person. The former also does not require a human birth as a precondition, and nonhuman beings such as gods and nāgas can get the bodhisattva vow. However, the Vast Conduct tradition argues that the bodhisattva vow must be based on general Buddhist ''prātimokṣa'' vows, which only a human can take.

<h5>Liturgy in the Profound View Tradition</h5>
In order to take the vows, one must first ask the buddhas, the bodhisattvas, and the great teachers to pay attention to the request, stating,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All buddhas, transcendent and accomplished conquerors, residing in the ten directions, bodhisattva great beings abiding on the ten levels (''bhūmi''s), and great guru vajra-holders, please consider me.<ref>''phyogs bcu na bzhugs pa'i sangs rgyas bcom ldan 'das thams cad dang''/ ''sa bcu la gnas pa'i byang chub sems dpa' sems dpa' chen po rnams dang''/ ''bla ma rdo rje 'dzin pa chen po rnams bdag la dgongs su gsol''/. For the Tibetan text, see Chatral Rinpoche, ''Byang sdoms blang chog dpal sprul gsung rgyun ltar bkod'', in Gsung 'bum, Bya bral sangs rgyas rdo rje (Taiwan: Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2017), 2: 215, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ354420. See also, Rigpa Translations, trans., "The Ritual for the Bodhisattva Vow: Arranged According to the Tradition of Patrul Rinpoche," by Chatral Rinpoche (Lotsawa House, 2008), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/chatral-rinpoche/bodhisattva-vow-patrul-tradition.</ref>
}}
With an exceptional motivation to save all sentient beings from suffering, one takes refuge in the exceptional objects, including the buddhas, their teachings, and the sangha community of enlightened bodhisattvas, for an exceptional duration—that is, until one reaches enlightenment. With such an attitude, one chants the following verse from the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' three times:
{{PullBcaVerses|2.26}}
This is followed by the verses to take the two types of bodhisattva vows: the vow of aspiring bodhicitta and that of engaged bodhicitta. The vow of aspiring bodhicitta is the pledge to attain the resultant buddhahood, while the vow of engaged bodhicitta is said to be the pledge to engage in the path leading to buddhahood. In the tradition coming down from Asaṅga, the vows for aspiring bodhicitta and engaged bodhicitta are taken separately and have different prerequisites. However, in Śāntideva's tradition presented here, vows for both are taken simultaneously. The following verses from chapter 3 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' are chanted three times, and one obtains vows for both aspiring and engaged bodhicitta at the end of the third recitation. At the end of the third recitation, one must mentally think one has received the vow.
{{PullBcaVerses|3.23}}
{{PullBcaVerses|3.24}}

<h5>Liturgy in the Vast Conduct Tradition</h5>
The Vast Conduct tradition has a different procedure and different liturgies for administering the aspiring and engaged bodhicitta vows separately. Below are the core parts of the liturgies which the officiant must read out three times and have the recipient of the vow repeat or respond to.

<h5>Core Liturgy for the Aspiring Bodhicitta</h5>
The officiant chants the following lines three times and has the recipient of the vow repeat after him or her.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=By means of whatever roots of virtue having the nature of generosity, morality, or meditation that I, who am named so-and-so, have performed in any of my various past lives, that I induced others to perform, or that I have rejoiced at when they were performed by others, just as the former tathāgatas, arhats, and true and complete buddhas, as well as the bodhisattvas who are great beings that reside on the great ārya bodhisattva stages, generated the mind that aspires to attain unsurpassed true and complete enlightenment, I, too, who am named so-and-so, from this moment on until I reach the seat of enlightenment, generate the mind that aspires to attain unsurpassed true and complete great enlightenment.

I shall deliver those who have not been delivered;
I shall liberate those who have not been liberated;
I shall provide relief to those who are without relief;
and I shall establish all beings who have not attained complete
nirvana in that state of complete nirvana.<ref>Artemus Engle, trans., ''Kadam: Stages of the Path, Mind Training, and Esoteric Practice, Part 1'', vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet, comp. Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (Boulder, CO: Snow Lion, 2024), 462.</ref>
}}

<h5>Core Liturgy for the Engaged Bodhicitta</h5>
The liturgy for taking the engaged bodhicitta vow in the Vast Conduct tradition contains many questions and answers in order to prepare and confirm the conviction of the practitioner before taking the actual vow. The following lines are only the core and final part of the recitation which the officiant must say three times and the recipient of the vow must respond to affirmatively.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Then, the spiritual teacher should ask:

O son or daughter of good family who is named so-and-so, do you accept from me, a spiritual teacher and bodhisattva who is named so-and-so, all of the bodhisattva precepts and all of the bodhisattva morality—namely, the morality of restraint, the morality of acquiring virtuous qualities, and the morality of acting on behalf of sentient beings—those precepts and that morality that have been observed by all the bodhisattvas of the past, those precepts and that morality that shall be observed by all the bodhisattvas of the future, and those precepts and that morality that currently are being observed by all the bodhisattvas of the present throughout the ten directions, those precepts and that morality with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the past have trained themselves, with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the future shall train themselves, and with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the present are training themselves?

The disciples should receive the vow by answering:

I do accept all of them.<ref>Engle, ''Kadam'', 483.</ref>
}}

<h4>Concluding Procedures</h4>

<h5>Rejoicing Oneself</h5>
Having received the bodhisattva vows, one rejoices in the achievement, reflecting on how one has made human birth meaningful and how one has been reborn in the family of buddhas. One thinks, it is astounding if a blind man scavenging in a heap of rubbish finds the most precious jewel; It is equally astounding for an ordinary person blind with ignorance to find the thought of awakening, which is the jewel of the mind, in the midst of one's afflictive emotions and thoughts.

<h5>Asking Others to Rejoice</h5>
One then chants the verse, asking all other beings to also rejoice in this achievement. With the buddhas as witnesses, one invites all beings as guests to the great offering of the ultimate state of the Buddha and all other kinds of happiness in the interim. The ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow is concluded with prayers for bodhicitta to grow and flourish and for the fulfillment of one's bodhisattva aspiration and project. (link to the verse).

<h5>Making Offerings in Gratitude</h5>
The ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow, especially if it is done for the first time in the presence of a master, would also include the offering of gifts as a token of gratitude. Such an act of offering is undertaken at the end of almost all important sessions of receiving teachings or vows and may involve cash or other gift items. The ceremony of taking the vow will normally end with verses for the dedication of merit like any other Mahāyāna session.

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<h2>Protecting Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Precepts</h2>

<h3>The Discipline of Abstaining from Misdeeds</h3>
The practice of bodhisattva moral discipline after taking the bodhisattva vow is often presented in three categories.
# The discipline of abstaining from misdeeds
# The discipline of gathering virtue
# The discipline of working for the welfare of sentient beings

The discipline of abstaining from misdeeds includes the moral precepts a bodhisattva must follow and the major and minor transgressions, known as downfalls in the Buddhist vocabulary. These are listed below. The second and third discipline concern things a bodhisattva should do and will be covered in subsequent sections.

<h4>Precepts for Aspiring Bodhicitta</h4>
One must avoid the four dark dharmas and follow the four white dharmas taught in ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra'').

Don'ts
#Cheat the venerable ones, including teachers
#Make someone with no regret regret a good deed
#Defame a noble being such as a bodhisattva
#Deceive sentient beings

Dos
#Tell no lies knowingly
#Treat sentient beings with benevolence
#Respect and praise a bodhisattva
#Place beings on the path to perfect buddhahood

<h4>Precepts for Engaged Bodhicitta in the Profound View Tradition: Eighteen Root Downfalls</h4>
One must avoid the eighteen root downfalls (transgressions or misdeeds) according to ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), which Śāntideva cites in ''The Compendium of Training'' and refers to in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.

<h5>Five Downfalls a King Is Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Take away property from the Three Jewels and stūpas
# Discard the holy Dharma of any vehicle
# Persecute someone in monastic robes, whether a monk or a transgressor
# Commit one of the five actions of immeasurable consequences
# Take up wrong views and nonvirtuous practices and make others do so

<h5>Five Downfalls a Minister Is Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Destroy a village
# Destroy a region
# Destroy a town
# Destroy a city
# Destroy a country

<h5>Eight Downfalls Common People Are Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Teach emptiness to someone who is not ready and make the person turn away from Mahāyāna
# Dissuade someone from the Mahāyāna path so that the person seeks individual liberation
# Dissuade someone from monastic and vinaya discipline saying it is better to train on the Mahāyāna path
# Deny that the path of disciples leads to the end of desire, etc. and convince someone
# Praise oneself and disparage others out of jealousy
# Sell oneself with lies of seeing the truth for the sake of wealth and veneration
# Get a monk punished and accept bribes regarding such an act
# Obstruct meditation by diverting provisions for practitioners to those doing recitation

<h4>Precepts for Engaged Bodhicitta in the Vast Conduct Tradition: Four Root Downfalls</h4>

Asaṅga summarizes the root downfalls taught in different sūtras into four in his ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi'').
#Praise oneself and criticize others out of attachment for wealth and veneration
#Not give wealth or Dharma to others out of stinginess
#Not accept an apology and hurt others out of anger
#Abandon Mahāyāna and teach fake dharma as true Dharma

<h4>Precepts for Both Aspiring and Engaged Bodhicitta</h4>
#Not forsake any sentient being or give up on helping someone and seek individual liberation
#Not engage in altruistic work or help, even if one is in a position to help

<h4>Minor Downfalls</h4>
Minor downfalls include various physical, verbal, and mental actions one must avoid as taught in chapter 5 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Compendium of Training'', and many sūtras. They include bodily comportments, such as unbecoming behavior, nonvirtuous forms of speech, such as idle gossip and harsh words, and negative thoughts and emotions. Commentators on ''The Compendium of Training'' enumerate eighty minor downfalls, while Candragomin's ''Vows in Twenty Verses'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'') mentions forty-six minor downfalls. The following passage from ''The Compendium of Training'' summarizes the complex moral system and downfalls of bodhisattva practice.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=In order to pacify the suffering and mental pain of all sentient beings in the present and in the future, and to generate happiness and mental pleasure of all sentient beings in the present and in the future, if a bodhisattva does not diligently engage body, speech, and mind without wavering, does not seek the conditions for them, does not work on remedying what obstructs them, does not take up the small suffering and mental pain which can overcome great suffering and mental pain, does not forsake small things for achieving greater things, and neglects doing so even for a moment, he/she commits a downfall. There is no downfall for not taking up what is beyond one's capacity, as there is no rule made for that in reality. In other cases [i.e., where one is capable], it is either a misdeed by nature or by restriction.<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fols. 11a6-11b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940.</ref>
}}
Śāntideva points out that some actions may appear like a downfall, called images of downfalls, but they are not downfalls. Such actions might include telling a white lie to save a life. These actions are permitted. But some actions may appear to be without a downfall, called images of non-downfalls, while being a downfall in reality. Such actions would include those which externally appear virtuous but are done with selfish intentions or actions that involve trying to do things which are beyond one's capacity.

<h4>Making Amends</h4>
Transgressing a bodhisattva vow is considered a serious offense, as such a person loses his or her moral integrity, fails to keep one's status, displeases the buddhas, lets down sentient beings whom one has promised to save, and could be reborn in unhappy realms. Thus, one must make amends through confession within six hours, or one-sixth of a day. Applying the four powers for confession mentioned earlier, a bodhisattva who has committed a downfall must make confessions and amendments. Śāntideva recommends that a bodhisattva who has committed a downfall must confess by chanting ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps'' three times during day and three times during the night.<ref>See ''Triskhandhakasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa phung po gsum pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo'') D284, mdo sde, vol. 68, ya, 57a3–77a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0284. For an English translation, see Stefan Mang and Peter Woods (Samye Translations), trans., "The Bodhisattva's Confession of Downfalls" (Lotsawa House, 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/words-of-the-buddha/confession-of-downfalls-nyingma.</ref>

Śāntideva also cites ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' and advises that a bodhisattva who has committed downfalls can confess to Ākāśagarbha, who will appear in a dream in some form to help one make amends by giving instructions. The bodhisattva must make the following supplication to Ākāśagarbha before twilight and sleep again:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Dawn! Dawn! O Compassionate and Fortunate One! As soon as you shine on the world, cover me with compassion. I also entreat Ākāśagarbha, the compassionate one, to show me the means by which I can confess the downfalls and the means by which I can attain the wisdom and skillful means of the sublime Mahāyāna.<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fol. 42a6-42b1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. For the passage in the ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa nam mkha'i snying po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), see Derge Kangyur D260, mdo sde, vol. 66, za, fol. 275.b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0260.</ref>
}}

<h3>The Discipline of Gathering Virtue</h3>
The discipline of gathering virtue refers to the bodhisattva practice of the six perfections, including giving, discipline, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom. How a practitioner takes up the practice of these six perfections will be explained below under the practice of engaged bodhicitta. It may be noted here, however, that through the six perfections, a bodhisattva gathers what is known as the ''two accumulations'': the accumulation of merit (''puṇyasambhāra'', བསོད་ནམས་ཀྱི་ཚོགས་) and the accumulation of pristine wisdom (''jñānasambhāra'', ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་ཚོགས་). The practice of the first five perfections falls under the first accumulation, and the sixth perfection comprises the second accumulation. A bodhisattva must complete these two accumulations or the six perfections (ཕར་ཕྱིན་དྲུག་རྫོགས་) in order to reach full buddhahood. In addition, a bodhisattva must also help mature or prepare the minds of his or her future disciples (གདུལ་བྱའི་རྒྱུད་སྨིན་) and cultivate the kind of realm or world he or she will attain (ཞིང་སྦྱོང་བ་). The latter two are undertaken through the various prayers a bodhisattva should make.

<h3>The Discipline of Benefitting Sentient Beings</h3>
The discipline of benefiting sentient beings is normally presented through the four means of attraction. While the discipline of abstaining from misdeeds and the discipline of gathering virtue helps a practitioner in self-development, the discipline of benefiting sentient beings helps the practitioner engage in altruistic activities for others. The four means of attraction are a skillful strategy with which a bodhisattva can benefit the world.

<h4>Gift Giving</h4>
A practitioner of the bodhisattva path should first give material gifts or Dharma teachings to attract potential beneficiaries. Most sentient beings appreciate gifts, and this helps attract their attention.

<h4>Sweet Words</h4>
Having attracted sentient beings through giving, the bodhisattva speaks to the audience with soft and persuasive speech to make them enter the right path. Thus, material gifts are followed by sweet talk.

<h4>Purposeful Practice</h4>
With knowledge of the wide spectrum of paths to enlightenment, the bodhisattva then teaches a path which is suitable and most effective to the audience. It is important to impart teachings which are appropriate to the capacity, disposition, and interest of the audience.

<h4>Consistent Engagement</h4>
While teaching the appropriate path to the audience, it is important for the bodhisattva to also lead by example. Thus, a practitioner of bodhisattva discipline must walk the talk and engage in the appropriate practice himself or herself.

<h3>The Four Bodhisattva Actions</h3>
Śāntideva's ''Compendium of Training'', which is an anthology of passages from the Mahāyāna sūtras on the training and practice of bodhisattvas, summarizes the training of bodhisattvas under the four actions of giving, protection, purification, and expansion of the three objects, including body, possessions, and virtues of the past, present, and future times. This is presented in a verse in ''The Compendium of Training'' as the crux of the matter to avoid any transgressions on the bodhisattva path:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions. (3)
}}

{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them. (4)<ref>For the verses in Tibetan, see Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fol. 1b , http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
}}
Śāntideva presents the four actions as a way for the practitioner engaged in the bodhisattva training to avoid moral transgressions and to make progress on the path. It is important for the practitioner to practice giving in the form of charity, teaching, and company. One must particularly dedicate and give one's body, possessions, and virtues to all sentient beings. Only by giving up attachment to these three objects of ordinary attachment and using these three objects for the benefit of the world can a person truly make progress on the bodhisattva path.

In order to have them available for sentient beings, a practitioner must protect these objects. One must not waste, squander, or neglect these objects, which can be of great benefit to the world. A practitioner's sense of giving and protecting these objects should not be stained by selfish interests and other negative emotions but be pure and wholesome. Thus, a bodhisattva must purify one's thoughts, speech, and actions and make available the three objects of body, possessions, and virtues to sentient beings in a pure form, in both thought and deed. If the benefit of the three objects of body, possessions, and virtues are not multiplied or expanded, there cannot be a great impact which is appropriate for the vast world of sentient beings. Thus, a practitioner must expand and scale up the impact of giving one's body, possessions, and virtues so that sentient beings gain optimal benefit. Such expansion and amplification is carried out through practices such as visualization and dedication.

<h2>Enhancing Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Practices</h2>

<h3>Enhancing Aspiring Bodhicitta</h3>

The ritual for taking the bodhisattva vow only starts the process of training in the Mahāyāna path for a new practitioner. Such an initial cultivation of bodhicitta must be followed by persistent practice to sustain and strengthen it, and there are many ways of nurturing the altruistic mind and cultivating bodhicitta. In the Profound View tradition, the practice of the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, as presented by Śāntideva in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', feature as the main practice. In the Vast Conduct tradition, the contemplation on the seven points of cause and effect, passed down from Asaṅga via Atiśa, is the most well-known practice. The meditation on the four immeasurable thoughts of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity is another method to cultivate the aspiring bodhicitta.

In carrying out these practices, an important point is to treat all sentient beings with equanimity, without any discrimination and partiality. To do so, in most Tibetan Buddhist traditions, a practitioner is instructed to visualize one's mother alongside a person whom one hates or whom one may consider as an enemy. In some traditions, one is encouraged to visualize one's mother as the center figure surrounded by other loved ones and all other sentient beings, including one's enemies. The figure of the mother is used because the mother is generally considered to be the person who loves one the most and toward whom one normally has a strong affection.

In order to cultivate a strong sense of equanimity, some masters use the concept of rebirth. As one has taken innumerable rebirths in the past in this cycle of existence, all beings have become one's mother, not just once or twice but countless times. While they were mothers, they have been as kind and loving as one's present mother. Thus, all sentient beings are treated equally as recipients of one's love and compassion. It is with such a sense of impartiality that one must practice the different methods of strengthening the aspiring bodhicitta.
<span id="The_Equality_between_Self_and_Others" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>The Equality between Self and Others</h4>
The practice of equality between self and others is carried out through the following series of contemplative thoughts and arguments.

<h5>Equal in Desiring Happiness</h5>
All sentient beings equally desire happiness. There is no difference between myself and others in wanting happiness, although we may differ in how we seek such happiness. Therefore, there is no reason why I should only seek my own happiness and not that of others. Śāntideva states:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.95}}
It is irrational and irresponsible that I seek only my happiness when both I and all other sentient beings equally desire happiness. Thus, I must seek happiness for others because they are sentient beings, just like my own body. As Śāntideva has said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=And others I will aid and benefit,
For they are living beings, like my body. (8.94)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 122.</ref>
}}

<h5>Equal in Disliking Suffering</h5>
All sentient beings equally dislike suffering. There is no difference between myself and others in not wanting pain and suffering. Therefore, there is no reason why I should only eliminate my own suffering and not that of others. Śāntideva states:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.96}}
It is irrational and irresponsible that I seek to eliminate only my own suffering when both I and all other sentient beings equally dislike suffering. Thus, I must eliminate the suffering of others because they are suffering, just like my own pain. As Śāntideva has said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=And therefore I'll dispel the pain of others,
For it is simply pain, just like my own. 8.94<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 122.</ref>
}}

<h5>Equal in Being Part of One Whole</h5>
If it is argued that I and others are different and therefore I need not seek the happiness of others and eliminate the suffering of others, such distinction is imaginary and subjective. The hands and feet are different parts of the body, but they can be seen as being parts of the same body. The hand helps to scratch when the foot is itching. In the same way, all sentient beings are parts of the living world as a whole, and I ought to look after other sentient beings. Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.114}}

<h5>Equal in Not Having "Self" or an Owner of Experience</h5>
Moreover, if there were a true self or owner of the experience of happiness or suffering, one could make such a distinction and discriminate. However, there is no such self who owns the experience to be found if I critically examine the mind-body composition. All beings are merely an assembly of many psycho-physical constituents, and our experiences are the same. There is no difference in the experiences and no real person or being to distinguish us as different individuals. Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.102}}

<h5>Equal in Being Able to Cherish Others</h5>
If it is thought that I cannot love strangers and unrelated sentient beings just as I love myself or those related to me, such a thought is mistaken. Sentient beings can easily love others with a change of mindset and habituation. If I buy a dog from a shelter and adopt it as a pet, from the moment I take it under my care, I would cherish and love it, although it was unknown to me before such a time. It is a matter of opening one's heart to cherish sentient beings. Even the love for one's body has come about as a result of one's mental attitude and habituation, just as Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.115}}

<h5>Equalize Thinking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h5>
A practitioner must regularly remember the bodhisattva vow one has taken and remind oneself of one's commitment to rescue all sentient beings from suffering. One should think: "I am a responsible person and a person of integrity. I must not break my promise or falter from the pledge which I have taken in the presence of all buddhas and sentient beings." All beings were given assurance that I will help them and save them from suffering. If I were to give up the promise, let down the buddhas, and deceive sentient beings, what will be my future?" With such thoughts, a practitioner endeavors to equally benefit other sentient beings as oneself and strives to equally dispel the suffering of others as one's own suffering. To this effect, Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|4.4}}
<span id="The_Exchange_between_Self_and_Others" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>The Exchange between Self and Others</h4>
The next step after the practice of equalizing oneself and others is the practice of exchange between self and others. In ordinary life and the world, one is used to cherishing oneself (བདག་གཅེས་འཛིན་), but on the bodhisattva path, one must cherish others (གཞན་གཅེས་འཛིན་). In actualizing bodhicitta, love and compassion for others takes priority over love for oneself. Altruism overrides self-centricity. One must, therefore, switch from cherishing and loving oneself to cherishing and loving others. In order to exchange between self and others as the object of love and affection, one must contemplate the virtues, advantages, and appropriateness of cherishing others and the vices, disadvantages, and inappropriateness of cherishing oneself.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Value of Actions</h5>
Self-love is at worst evil and at best ordinary, whereas altruistic love is noble and sublime. Taking the case of giving, Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.125}}
Ethically speaking, an altruistic action has high positive value, whereas a selfish action is negative and deplorable, even by worldly standards. Thus, considering the ethical value of altruistic actions, one must cherish others instead of cherishing oneself.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Result of Actions</h5>
Following the law of cause and effect, a selfish action is negative and therefore leads to undesirable results, whereas an altruistic action is a highly positive action which results in desirable outcomes. Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.126}}
{{PullBcaVerses|8.129}}
In order to avoid pain and suffering and to instead experience pleasure and happiness, it is important to stop cherishing oneself and to cherish others and engage in altruistic actions.

<h5>Exchange to Follow Great Beings</h5>
When one looks at the history of the world, all great beings, including the Buddha and other sublime Mahāyāna masters, have become great by cherishing others. Ordinary beings remain stuck in lowly life because they only cherish themselves. Śāntideva remarks:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.130}}
In order to emulate the great beings and, in particular, follow the Buddha on the path to enlightenment, it is essential to cherish others and to engage in altruistic actions. Cherishing oneself is giving in to the ordinary habit of the childish.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Number and Significance</h5>
Moreover, it is important to cherish others over oneself because the world of sentient beings is far greater in number and significance than oneself or a small group of one's loved ones. A wise person works for the vast majority and the greater good of society at large instead of a single person or family. The impact of working for others will be manifold compared to the result of working for just oneself. Thus, Śāntideva exhorts:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.139}}

<h5>Exchange Thinking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h5>
A practitioner recollects the bodhisattva vow he or she has taken to serve all sentient beings. In order to live up to one's pledge and act according to the oath taken in the presence of the buddhas and sentient beings, the practitioner reinforces the commitment to work for all sentient beings and to cherish others over and above oneself. As Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|4.4}}
Using different arguments and justifications, one must exchange oneself and others and swap cherishing oneself with cherishing others. One must know that if one does not do so, there is no benefit in the long term in cherishing oneself. Śāntideva has this reminder:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.131}}
{{PullBcaVerses|8.136}}
<span id="Tonglen_-_The_Practice_of_Exchange" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>Tonglen - The Practice of Exchange</h4>
In Tibet, the practice of exchange between self and others is taken up commonly as ''tonglen'', or giving and taking. In this practice, one takes the suffering and problems of other sentient beings onto oneself and gives to them one's own happiness and resources.

One would mentally place one's mother and all sentient beings in front of oneself and, out of an intense feeling of gratitude and affection, imagine giving one's body, possessions, and virtues to them. As one does this, one can visualize a white, soothing, blissful substance, like warm milk or soft wool, which is in essence joy and happiness, flowing out of oneself to others. As the soothing substance envelopes others and fills these beings, the area, the world, and, gradually, the entire universe, one imagines that the beings are filled with joy and bliss. Then, one visualizes a dark, foul substance, like dirty smoke, which is in essence suffering and the problems of the world, flowing from others into one's own being. As it enters one's body, one imagines that all the problems and miseries of others are taken in by oneself. Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim wrote the following to this effect:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=May my body, possessions, and stock of virtues
All bear fruit for every sentient being.
May all diverse emotions and wrongdoing of the world
Fall upon me and may they be well.<ref>Karma Phuntsho, ''The Life and Works of Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim'' (Thimphu: Loden Foundation, 2023), 59.</ref>
}}
This practice of ''tonglen'', which is highlighted in the ''lojong'', or mind training, tradition of the Kadam school, is also combined with breathing exercises. In such practice, as one exhales, one visualizes soft, milky, blissful clouds of happiness and joy issuing forth from one's body and filling the target beneficiaries, the world, and the universe with the white soothing substance, which is bliss and happiness. As one inhales, one visualizes a dark, foul substance, which is suffering and the problems of other beings, pouring into oneself and thereby freeing all other sentient beings from sufferings and problems.

As it can be challenging to imagine taking in all the problems and suffering of the world for an ordinary practitioner, some traditions add an extra step of visualization. As the negative energy and suffering of the entire world is absorbed in the form of a dark, putrid substance during inhalation, one visualizes in the center of one's heart a powerful and radiant vajra or ball of light which transmutes the negative energy and suffering into positive energy and sublime bliss. One then imagines, as one exhales, that this positive energy and bliss in the form of soothing white light is sent out to cover all sentient beings and fill the entire universe.

<h4>Seven-Point Instructions of Cause and Effect</h4>
One of the most popular contemplative practices to enhance the aspiring bodhicitta and strengthen the bodhisattva's willpower is the seven-point instructions of cause and effect coming down from Atiśa through the Kadam tradition. Unlike Śāntideva's instructions, which use rational arguments, the seven-point instructions use the concept of reincarnation and the belief in innumerable rebirths one has taken in the past. Starting with the belief that all sentient beings have become one's mother, the instructions proceed from one point to another in the form of the preceding point being a cause leading to the subsequent one as the result. Thus, it is known as the seven-point instructions of cause and effect.

<h5>1. Seeing All Beings as Your Mother</h5>
The first point of meditation is to recognize all sentient beings as having been one's mother. One meditates on the point that in the course of the countless rebirths one has taken in this cycle of existence, all sentient beings have become one's mother, not just once or twice but innumerable times. Nāgārjuna states hypothetically that if one made balls of earth as big as Indian cypress seeds, the number of times a sentient being has become one's mother would exceed the number of balls one can make using the entire earth. Using the belief in the cycle of rebirth, one must generate the strong belief that all sentient beings have become one's mother.

<h5>2. Remembering the Kindness of the Mother</h5>
When they were our mothers, sentient beings showed us great love and affection. From carrying us in their wombs for nine months with much love and care, giving the best food, keeping us warm, and protecting us from harm, to helping us to grow up and succeed in life, they have shown unrelenting and unconditional love and kindness. They would have preferred to die rather than see us get even mildly sick. One should think of the absolute kindness with which the mother sentient beings have taken care of us in past lifetimes and how much one owes to them for their kindness.

<h5>3. Wishing to Repay the Kindness</h5>
Being acutely aware of their kindness, one must not only remember their kindness but act to repay the kindness. One must think: "Today, I am a capable and responsible human being. I should not merely feel the kindness of the mother sentient beings and be grateful but do something meaningful to show them gratitude and return their kindness." As a conscientious person, it is important to reciprocate the kindness others have shown to us. In this manner, one cultivates a strong compulsion to do something to reciprocate the love and kindness of the mother sentient beings.

<h5>4. Love</h5>
One wonders what would be the best way to reciprocate the kindness of the mother sentient beings. All sentient beings like happiness. Thus, it would be appropriate to show gratitude and return their kindness by helping them attain happiness. In order to attain happiness, one must have the causes and conditions for happiness. Therefore, one should seek happiness and the causes of happiness for all kind mother sentient beings in order to repay their kindness. As such, one makes the aspiration: "May all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness."

<h5>5. Compassion</h5>
In order to genuinely enjoy happiness, one must get rid of pain and suffering, and to do so, one must eliminate the causes of suffering. Therefore, one should seek to eliminate suffering and the causes of suffering so that the mother sentient beings can enjoy happiness. One makes the aspiration: "May all kind mother sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering."

<h5>6. Special Intention</h5>
Merely wishing that mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and be free from suffering and the causes of suffering is not enough. In order for them to realize this, one must take up the responsibility to help them do so and act with a strong resolve and determination. Thus, one should think: "Come what may, I shall personally strive to make all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and free them from suffering and the causes of suffering."

<h5>7. Generating the Mind of Enlightenment</h5>
Having developed such an unwavering resolve to make all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and free them from suffering and the causes of suffering, one seeks the most effective way to do so. What would be a viable and sustainable state to place all kind mother sentient beings in so that they can enjoy genuine happiness and be free from suffering? There is no genuine and lasting happiness and permanent freedom from suffering in this cycle of existence. All levels of existence in samsara are marred by dissatisfaction and eventually end up in suffering. Thus, there is no place or state of existence in samsara that is a viable permanent solution. Even if one attains the personal nirvana of individual liberation as an enlightened saint, there is no genuine happiness in an individualistic state of nirvana when the rest of the world around oneself is plunged in the sea of suffering. How can one enjoy full happiness by turning a blind eye to the suffering around oneself? Besides, even the enlightened saints, who are yet to become fully enlightened buddhas, are not free from the pain of subtle ignorance and the process of becoming. Thus, the only state with genuine and lasting happiness is the state of the fully enlightened buddha, who is not only free from all suffering and enjoying supreme bliss but also brimming with joy in helping sentient beings.

Thus, one should have the resolve: "In order to repay the immense kindness of my kind mother sentient beings, to help them attain genuine and lasting happiness and the causes of happiness, and to free them from suffering and the causes of suffering, I shall by myself and by any means place all kind mother sentient beings in the state of the unsurpassed, perfect, and fully enlightened Buddha." This seventh and final point is bodhicitta.

<span id="Four_Immeasurable_Thoughts" style="display: block; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></span>
<h4>Four Immeasurable Thoughts</h4>
The four immeasurable thoughts are loving kindness (''maitrī'', བྱམས་པ་), compassion (''karuṇa'', སྙིང་རྗེ་), sympathetic joy (''muditā'', དགའ་བ་), and equanimity (''upekṣā'', བཏང་སྙོམས་). Concepts which perhaps predate Buddhism, they form one of the most common sets of practices of love and goodwill in all schools of Buddhism. However, they play a very important role as techniques to express compassion and enhance altruism.

Loving-kindness refers to the wish to bring happiness and the causes of happiness to all sentient beings. Compassion refers to the wish to free all sentient beings from suffering and the causes of suffering. Sympathetic joy is the thought of rejoicing in the happiness of sentient beings and wishing they be never separated from it. And equanimity, as it is understood in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, is the attitude to treat all sentient beings with total impartiality, with no sense of discrimination, attachment, or aversion.

Like the practices above, it is considered important in the Mahāyāna system to develop equanimity as the first of the four immeasurable thoughts. Thus, one may start the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts by visualizing one's mother and one's enemy on equal terms in front of oneself, surrounded by other sentient beings. Only meditation with such a sense of equanimity becomes a truly Mahāyāna practice. Having one's parents, enemies, relatives, friends, colleagues, and the entire world of sentient beings as one's object of meditation, one can then cultivate the four immeasurable thoughts. There are many different ways of practicing the four immeasurable thoughts in the different Buddhist traditions. The cultivation of the four immeasurable thoughts through four modes according to the tradition passed down from Patrul Rinpoche is given below.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as an Aspiration</h5>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the cause of happiness.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, never be separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in boundless equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Wish</h5>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attained happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, became free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, were never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abided in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Pledge</h5>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, become free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Supplication</h5>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, become free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Three Levels of Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts</h5>
In the Mahāyāna system, there are three different levels of contemplating the four immeasurable thoughts.
#The first level is to contemplate as mentioned above, with the conventional knowledge that sentient beings exist and need to be freed from suffering and placed in the state of happiness. Because one assumes sentient beings to exist and practices loving-kindness, etc. for sentient beings, this type of practice is known as loving-kindness focused on sentient beings (སེམས་ཅན་དམིགས་པ་).
#On the next, higher level of the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, one can practice loving-kindness, etc. with the awareness of the impermanent and transient nature of sentient beings. Impermanence and change are the true nature of conditioned life. Thus, the practice of loving-kindness, etc. with an awareness of impermanence is known as loving-kindness, etc. focused on the truth (ཆོས་ལ་དམིགས་པ་).
#On the highest level of ontological scrutiny and the nature of existence, there is no sentient being, no person practicing the four immeasurable thoughts, and no act of loving-kindness, etc. Everything is empty of true existence and is merely an illusory appearance. Thus, there is no object to apprehend; there is no focus or fixation on anything. The practice of loving-kindness without the sense of grasping and apprehension of anything is known as loving-kindness without apprehension (དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་). A bodhisattva must eventually cultivate the four immeasurable thoughts in this manner—without grasping, attachment, and fixation.

<h4>Compassion</h4>
A simple but powerful way to cultivate bodhicitta is to develop the feeling of compassion. As compassion is seen as the immediate cause of bodhicitta, many sūtras and commentarial treatises underscore the practice of compassion in order to cultivate genuine bodhicitta. Masters such as Candrakīrti and Kamalaśīla highlight the vital role of great compassion in generating bodhicitta and practicing the Mahāyāna path. Right at the beginning of his famous treatise ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''), Candrakīrti praises compassion by describing it as a process of cultivation, comparing it to a seed in the beginning, to water in the middle, and to a ripened harvest at the end.<ref>See Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, dbu ma, vol. 102, 'a, fol. 201b , http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> Thus, according to Candrakīrti, compassion plays a fundamental role throughout the Mahāyāna process of enlightenment. Similarly, in the first chapter of his ''Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama''), Kamalaśīla cites many sūtras to show how great compassion plays a central role in Mahāyāna practice. He then goes on to show how one can generate compassion by meditating on the suffering of sentient beings.

One must think of the myriad kinds of suffering sentient beings go through, from the unbearable cold and heat in the hell realms, the torment of hunger and thirst among hungry ghosts, and the exploitation, fear, torture, and killing that animals, insects, fish, and birds go through. Even as humans, beings suffer from poverty, subjugation, persecution, illness, death, separation from loved ones, and meeting with those who are unpleasant. One must meditate on the countless forms of pain and suffering sentient beings undergo and then wish all sentient beings to be free from such suffering. Repeatedly thinking of the suffering of sentient beings and intensely wishing all sentient beings to be totally free from such suffering leads to the quick and easy generation of bodhicitta.

Initially, one can generate such a wish for one's loved ones and then extend it to strangers and eventually to those one dislikes. Reflection on how one has taken countless rebirths in this cycle of existence and how all sentient beings have become one's mother and relatives may be carried out to help develop equanimity and generate intense compassion toward all sentient beings without bias and partiality.

Being an integral part of bodhicitta, compassion is seen as the quintessence of all spiritual practice. To this effect, Avalokiteśvara states in ''The Dharma Council Sūtra'' (''Dharmasaṃgītisūtra''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Blessed One! A bodhisattva need not train in numerous dharmas. If a bodhisattva understands and upholds one dharma, all dharmas of the Buddha will be on the palm of his hand. What is that one dharma? It is great compassion.<ref>''Dharmasaṃgītisūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos yang dag par sdud pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), Derge Kangyur D238, mdo sde, vol. 65, zha, fol. 84b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW30532_0238.</ref>
}}

<h3>Enhancing Engaged Bodhicitta</h3>
The practice of engaged or active bodhicitta covers the entire range of the Mahāyāna paths and practices that a bodhisattva must follow and adopt. The Mahāyāna paths and innumerable practices are commonly captured in the set of six perfections that a bodhisattva must master in order to reach the state of a fully enlightened buddha.

<h4>The Practice of the Six Perfections</h4>
The six perfections in Mahāyāna Buddhism are giving, discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom. They are said to cover all aspects of bodhisattva practice and are arranged in a sequence of their importance and depth, with the latter being more important and deeper than the former.

<h5>Giving (''dāna'', སྦྱིན་པ་)</h5>
The practice of giving or generosity is defined by the inner sense of giving rather than by the quantity or value of the material given. Śāntideva writes in the fifth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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Giving helps a practitioner overcome the negative trait of stinginess and attachment to things. If one has a strong attachment to things and is not able to give anything to others, a beginner could start by giving something from one hand to the other in order to get used to the act of giving. A student can train in giving by giving things of little value or by giving to people who are close. Gradually, a practitioner can give things of higher value, giving even to strangers and enemies. A bodhisattva develops the sense of giving gradually and tests his or her willpower and mental ability to give without expecting anything in return or any reward. A bodhisattva is not allowed to give anything he or she is not capable of giving wholeheartedly. When a bodhisattva has developed a strong sense of giving, he or she can give away even parts of the body with no attachment or regret. A bodhisattva with a highly advanced sense of giving will experience joy and bliss in giving away even parts of his or her own body. Thus, it is important to cultivate the inner sense of giving.

The will to give is often cultivated in the beginning by explaining the karmic benefit of giving. Giving leads to wealth and prosperity in the future. Thus, people are often encouraged to give with the belief of getting rich in the future. However, a bodhisattva's giving must transcend such worldly practice. Eventually, a bodhisattva must give without any expectation of return in this life or reward in the form of karmic results in future lifetimes. Stories of the Buddha and other masters are also frequently told to inspire giving. The Buddha is said to have given his body to a hungry tigress as Prince Mahāsattva and to flesh eating demons as King Maitrībala.
He is said to have given all the riches of his kingdom, his wife, children, and eyes to beggars as Prince Viśvantara. These and many other inspirational stories are used to help practitioners develop the sense of giving.

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The Mahāyāna tradition presents three types of giving:
#Giving material goods
#Giving protection
#Giving Dharma

One can give material gifts to one's teachers, parents, beggars, mendicants, and other recipients. Śāntideva's ''Compendium of Training'' mentions how a monk must practice giving by sharing a portion of one's alms with other beings. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' presents giving mostly in the context of making offerings to the enlightened beings as part of the seven-limb prayer and the dedication of one's body, possessions, and virtues to the welfare of all sentient beings. Making offerings, either through the actual giving of things or through visualization, is a very common practice of giving material gifts and services. Even if one does not have anything to give or cannot afford to do so, one can practice giving by imagining giving one's body, possessions, virtues, and other pleasant things in existence.

Giving protection includes saving life, giving company, and defending the weak. Rescuing animals from the butcher, saving fish from being killed, and freeing caged birds are some common examples of giving protection which Tibetan Buddhists practice regularly. The giving of Dharma or sharing knowledge and showing the truth is considered to be the highest form of giving, as it can bring lasting results leading to enlightenment.

A beginner may give with the mistaken notion that there is a real giver, recipient, and the object given. However, the practice of giving only qualifies as the practice of the perfection of giving when there is no fixed notion of the giver, recipient, and the object given. A bodhisattva must be able to give without the thought or notion of the three factors—giver, recipient, and the thing given.

<h5>Discipline (''śīla'', ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་)</h5>

The discipline of the bodhisattva is often classified into three actions: abstaining from misdeeds, gathering virtues, and working for the welfare of sentient beings, as shown above. It is, in essence, the renunciation or giving up of negative thoughts, words, and deeds and the engagement in positive actions. A bodhisattva attains the perfection of discipline by perfecting the mind of such renunciation or relinquishment. As such, it serves as an antidote to immorality and unethical life.

Discipline is considered a fundamental basis for the growth of other virtuous qualities, just as the earth itself is important for cultivation. With discipline, one can engage in meditation and develop insight or wisdom. The practice of discipline includes both following the precepts and having the mental integrity to stick to the righteous course of actions.

In order to do so, Mahāyāna masters such as Śāntideva underscore the importance of vigilance or carefulness (''apramāda'', བག་ཡོད་), which is described in the Buddhist texts as a state of being attentive to what is to be adopted and what is to be abandoned. Śāntideva devotes the fourth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' to developing such carefulness or conscientiousness. Another crucial state of the mind is mindfulness (''smṛti'', དྲན་པ་). Mindfulness in this context refers to remembering and not forgetting "the dos and don'ts" with respect to one's moral conduct. It is important to always be mindful of the object and field of one's engagements. Introspection or alertness (''saṃprajanya'', ཤེས་བཞིན་) is another state of the mind which is crucial for bodhisattva discipline. Introspection watches the body, speech, and mind with alertness to check on what they are up to and how they are engaged.

These three aspects of the mind are crucial for a practitioner on the bodhisattva path. One must have mindfulness to be always aware of what is right or wrong, have vigilance and be very careful and heedful of the different areas of engagement, and maintain introspection to constantly watch one's mind, speech, and body.

Equipped with these tools, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must follow the precepts listed above after taking the bodhisattva vow. In addition, there are ten nonvirtuous actions to be eschewed and ten virtuous actions to be adopted as part of the general practice of Buddhist ethics. The ten nonvirtuous actions are:
#Taking life
#Taking what is not given
#Sexual misconduct for bodily actions
#Telling lies
#Creating discord
#Speaking harsh words
#Idle gossip for verbal actions
#Covetousness
#Malicious thoughts
#Wrong view for mental actions

As an antidote to these actions, a practitioner must adopt the ten virtuous actions:
#Protecting life
#Giving charity
#Practicing chastity for bodily actions
#Speaking the truth
#Making peace/conciliation
#Speaking kind words
#Engaging in useful speech for verbal actions
#Contentment
#Loving-kindness
#Right view for mental actions

There are many books in which a practitioner can find the moral precepts and code of ethics regarding a bodhisattva's behavior. These include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Compendium of Training'', as well as ''The Thirty-Seven Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ལག་ལེན་སོ་བདུན་མ།). These texts summarize the very detailed and scattered presentations of the bodhisattva discipline in the Mahāyāna sūtras. Besides the moral codes, it is also important to have an effective routine for the practice of bodhisattva discipline. A twenty-four-hour day is normally divided into six periods, or "watches," and specific bodhisattva activities are allocated during those watches. Such disciplinary rules, depending on individual circumstances and needs, should make the life of a bodhisattva highly conducive and productive for the practice of the bodhisattva path.

Finally, a very important part of the practice of discipline is the ritual of making amends when one violates the precepts either consciously or unconsciously. For the transgression of root downfalls, or major violations, a practitioner must promptly make confessions and reparations before the end of the watch which follows the watch in which the lapse took place. If the major violation is not amended before the end of the following watch, then the bodhisattva is required to take the vow again. In order to make amends for all violations, a bodhisattva is advised, as explained earlier, to recite ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps''.

<h5>Patience (''kṣānti'', བཟོད་པ་)</h5>
Patience is the third of the six perfections and is described as the hardest practice, one that requires unparalleled fortitude. In the philosophical descriptions one finds in the texts, patience is characterized by an undisturbed state of the mind. Not being agitated by conditions, particularly unpleasant ones, is the essence of patience. It serves as a counterforce to anger, which is a strong agitation of the mind and is considered to be the most heinous of evils.

First and foremost, the practitioner must reflect on the destructive nature of anger and the futility of getting angry. A moment of anger can consume the virtues accumulated throughout a thousand eons and cause great mental pain and discomfort. It deprives a person of peace and calm and the ability to work effectively. Like a bottle of muddy water shaken violently, an angry mind is disturbed and lacks composure and clarity to do anything effectively. On the contrary, patience brings mental calm and clarity. Śāntideva highlights the futility of getting upset in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as follows:
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Having developed the conviction that getting upset and angry is only harmful and that patience is beneficial for inner peace and productivity, one must cultivate a patient and forbearing mind. From a traditional Buddhist point of view, anger, as the most heinous evil, also leads to rebirth in the lowest hells, where one will be tormented by pain and agony for eons, while patience leads to happy rebirths and particularly to future lifetimes with outstanding physical beauty. Even in this life, a peevish and angry person, even if a generous patron, is loathed and feared by others for his or her short temper, but a tolerant and serene person enjoys admiration and respect from others. Thus, the need for patience.

The practice of patience is divided into three based on the object of patience.
#Patience in tolerating harm doers
#Patience in bearing hardship
#Patience in understanding the teachings

The beings who cause harm and annoyance are the most obvious and common objects toward whom one must practice patience. "Without enemies, to whom can one practice patience," goes a Tibetan Buddhist saying.<ref>Similar sayings appear in a number of works: Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa'') contains teachings about viewing enemies as valuable teachers for developing patience. The ''Thirty-Seven Practices of a Bodhisattva'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'') by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo contains similar teachings about viewing enemies as precious teachers. Likewise, such statements appear in chapter 6 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'') by Śāntideva.</ref> Such enemies and harm doers can be endless and diverse if one remains easily annoyed and irritable in one's own character. Śāntideva writes in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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Knowing that the main solution to the many harms in the world lies in patience and forbearance, a bodhisattva must tolerate harm doers and not be upset by their harmful actions. One can do so with the broad view that the harm may be a result of one's own karma in past lifetimes and not a fault of the harm doer. By tolerating a small harm or annoyance in this life, one can expiate the negative karma and escape the terrifying consequences in the future.

Another way to cultivate patience is to know that the persons causing harm often do so under the influence of other factors, including their inner emotions and circumstances, over which they have no control. Thus, it is absurd to get upset at a person instead of having pity and compassion for them. In fact, due to one's negative karma, a harm doer causes harm, but in doing so the harm doer commits negative karma and begets more suffering in the lower realms. So, in reality, one does even greater harm to the harm doer by responding with anger instead of compassion. Thus, it is not right to be angry or upset at the harm doer.

Moreover, an incidence of harm such as one's body being struck by an enemy using a weapon is a result of a combination of many factors, including the body, weapon, enemy, anger, etc. So, why put the blame only on the person and not on the weapon? Furthermore, why only blame others who brandish the weapon and not oneself who brandishes the body? One must own a share of responsibility for having a body so prone to agony like a running sore. Using such moral and logical arguments, as presented in Śāntideva's writings, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must practice tolerance and forbearance of harm caused by other beings.

Another cause of frustration and anger is suffering and dissatisfaction in life. Although there may not be any personal agency, sentient beings get upset and angry at undesirable situations, such as illness, hunger, thirst, pain, and not getting the things one desires. A person on the bodhisattva path must practice patience in bearing hardship and suffering without giving in to frustration and anger. For this, one must reflect on the nature of existence and how it is filled with suffering and problems. Life in samsara is riddled with problems by nature. Thus, it will be nonsensical to expect it to be otherwise and get upset about it. How silly would it be to get angry at fire for being hot by nature?

Moreover, pain and problems are also subjective. Depending on the state of their mind, some brave men become more valiant upon seeing their own blood dripping, while timid people even faint upon seeing the blood of others. Thus, a practitioner must learn to be stoic and to disregard irritation because the one who is peevish sees more harm. A practitioner must also realize that existing problems may be hard to bear, but they are only a minor pain compared to the pain which anger begets. Such pain, like a small surgery to treat a serious ailment, is beneficial in the long run. It is likened to a prisoner on death row being freed with an arm chopped off.

Thus, a practitioner must not only face problems in life with a calm mind but also view pain and suffering as an important catalyst for spiritual transformation. As Śāntideva writes:
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Moreover, people go through various hardships and suffering even for petty worldly reasons such as material profit, political power, fame, marriage, or religious worship. What need is there to mention then the value of having fortitude and practicing patience to benefit sentient beings and to take them to the state of full enlightenment? A true hero is therefore someone who defeats the inner foe of anger and maintains calm and compassion even in the face of tragedy and great harm. The rest who defeat their enemies Śāntideva likens to stabbing a corpse.

Just as one must endure problems and suffering in life, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must also foster the courage and conviction to accept and fathom the true nature of reality and to align one's thoughts and deeds with truth. A bodhisattva must train to understand the true nature of phenomena, such as the impermanence of conditioned things, the interdependence of all phenomena, the absence of an inherent self or person, the selflessness of phenomena, the illusory nature of the world, and the ineffable, unobstructed, empty, open nature of the ultimate reality free from all conceptual fabrication. Actual practice and meditation on the ultimate nature will be discussed below under the perfection of wisdom.

As the practice of the third type of patience, a bodhisattva endures to know the truth through a rational and analytical approach instead of taking things for granted. Critical inquiry and analyses, such as in the aforementioned example about a person hitting another with a weapon, helps one overcome mistaken assumptions and inherent bias and see the true nature of things. It is through knowing the true nature of reality that one can appreciate the nexus of causes and conditions and thus tolerate the harms and problems in life as well as transcend to a higher level of insight. Thus, a practitioner takes up the third type of patience by having the unrelenting commitment to and confidence in the bodhisattva path of wisdom and compassion. A bodhisattva remains steadfast in upholding compassion to help all sentient beings and firm in his or her understanding and realization of the way things are. With this, a bodhisattva is then never tired of engaging in selfless service and never affected by the challenges, misfortunes, and vagaries of life.

Śāntideva also advises practitioners, toward the end of the sixth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', to practice patience and tolerance toward sentient beings, including harm doers, because they serve as agents for spiritual transformation. Without beings, one cannot possibly pursue the Mahāyāna path of compassion and altruism. Just as the Buddha helps one accumulate merit as an object of veneration, sentient beings also help one accrue merit through patience, giving, etc. Moreover, it is in pleasing sentient beings that we find the best way to please buddhas, who wholeheartedly cherish them. Getting angry at beings or harming them would displease the buddhas. Thus, it is very important for a follower of the Buddha to love and respect sentient beings in order to truly remain faithful to the Buddha. Moreover, even sentient beings possess buddha-nature and are worthy of veneration, not disdain and disrespect. Adopting such outlooks, values, and reasoning, the follower of the bodhisattva path practices tolerance and patience.

<h5>Diligence (''vīrya'', བརྩོན་འགྲུས་)</h5>
The fourth perfection is the perfection of enthusiasm, zeal, effort, or diligence. In Buddhist philosophy, it is defined as zeal or joy in virtuous actions, and it serves as an antidote to indolence. Śāntideva remarks that just as there cannot be motion without wind, there cannot be merit without diligence. The cultivation of diligence entails giving up the three kinds of indolence:
#Laziness, which is to be in the state of lethargy, sloth, and boredom
#Despondency, which is to be inactive through diffidence and lack of energy
#Negative addiction, which is to be preoccupied by unwholesome things

Wholesome diligence functions as an antidote to these three kinds of indolence. In order to overcome the first type of indolence, which involves being lazy, lethargic, and uninterested, one must cultivate interest, enthusiasm, and motivation in wholesome activities. A person on the bodhisattva path must be physically and mentally agile, enterprising, and diligent. To do so, one must develop some degree of remorse for the current situation in samsara and aim to reach a higher state of being. The Tibetan Buddhist practice of the four points of mind turning, including reflecting on the rarity and preciousness of humanhood, the impermanence of life, the efficacy of the law of cause and effect, and the flaws of the cycle of existence can help generate enthusiasm and motivation to seek full enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings.

A practitioner must reflect on the fortunate state of having obtained the precious and rare human birth and of having good health and all other necessary circumstances for seeking the higher goal of enlightenment. Reflecting on the precious and rare nature of such an opportunity to seek enlightenment, a practitioner must immediately plunge into the practice of the bodhisattva path. If one does not do so, one must realize that such fortunate human existence is fragile and bound to change any time. One must meditate on the impermanence and fragility of life and on how death can happen anytime. Thus, one must not waste one's precious life in laziness, slumber, or distraction. Śāntideva warns against such waste in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.
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In addition to fostering enthusiasm and effort through reflection on the precious nature of humanhood and impermanence, a practitioner can also reflect on the law of cause and effect. One must realize that happy, desirable results come about only by investing in the necessary causes of happiness and that suffering arises from engaging in the causes of suffering. Fully aware of the infallible nature of cause and effect, a practitioner must enthusiastically engage in wholesome actions and work hard in order to reap a good result. A practitioner must work hard to abandon negative actions in order to escape from suffering and reach nirvana. Similarly, a practitioner must contemplate the flaws of rebirth in samsara, such as not getting what is desirable, getting what is not desirable, encountering those one dislikes, and separation from those one likes. Beings in the lower realms of existence are afflicted by multiple forms of suffering, beings in happy realms suffer from inevitable change in situations, and all beings suffer from the stress of the constant pursuit of happiness.

In the traditional reflection on the faults of the cycle of existence, a practitioner meditates on the suffering of heat and cold in the hell realms, hunger and thirst among hungry ghosts, exploitation and predation in the animal kingdom, illness and old age among humans, strife and warfare among demigods, and death and downfall in the celestial realms. These reflections and harsh life experiences help in engendering motivation and zeal to engage in virtuous actions and seek the higher goal of enlightenment. A practitioner must also reflect on the bodhisattva oath taken earlier to place all sentient beings in buddhahood and now put forth effort to walk the talk.

Having overcome the first problem of laziness and sloth through such reflections, a practitioner must work on the second problem of diffidence and despondency. A practitioner must think of the endless cycle of hard work ordinary beings undertake even for petty worldly benefit and compare that with the noble work a bodhisattva has to undertake for the greater benefit of the world. Thinking of this noble cause and the limited effort and time required for it, one must feel emboldened and encouraged to engage in bodhisattva practice. In the traditional Buddhist worldview, one has gone through immeasurable suffering in countless lifetimes, resulting in no real benefit. The hard work and sweat on the bodhisattva path, however, is a limited and small pain which can bring forth a greater long-term benefit, like the pain of an incision to cure a serious illness.

Moreover, in order to overcome a lack of confidence, a practitioner must realize that even an insect, having buddha-nature as its nature, can reach buddhahood through effort. What need, then, to mention a human being who has the rational and emotional capacity to attain enlightenment. If one is afraid of the difficult bodhisattva practices such as giving one's body and limbs, such practices become easy and enjoyable with practice and habituation. The Buddha prohibits a bodhisattva from undertaking any endeavor beyond his or her mental capacity.

Thus, the bodhisattva path, if one is well-equipped with wisdom and compassion, is not a difficult task but a very pleasant and enjoyable enterprise. Śāntideva writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Sin has been abandoned, thus there is no pain;
Through having wisdom there is no more sorrow. (7.27ab)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref>
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=What can sadden those who have compassion,
Who remain within saṃsāra for the sake of beings? (7.28cd)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref>
}}
Furthermore, Śāntideva asks: "Which thoughtful person riding the horse of bodhicitta and having no fatigue would become despondent in going from joy to joy?"<ref>''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' 7.30. See also Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref> He recommends the four forces of interest, steadfastness, joy, and relinquishment. One must cultivate the strong interest and wish to engage in virtuous actions, abandon negative actions, eliminate the suffering of sentient beings, and create happiness for all sentient beings. Such an interest is generated by thinking of the benefits of virtuous actions and the demerits of nonvirtuous actions. Once one has found such a strong interest and wish, one must remain firm and steadfast in the pursuit of happiness for all beings. One must maintain unwavering confidence and pride in the endeavor and not allow dejection and fatigue to set in. Taking up the challenge to defeat the negative emotions, a practitioner should not only remain steadfast but delve into the bodhisattva practice with joy and enthusiasm, like an elephant rushing to a lake in the midday heat or a gamer indulging in the game. Should a practitioner encounter insurmountable challenges or hardship or suffer from fatigue, then he or she should relinquish the specific task for the time being to be resumed at a later time when conditions are better.

Thus, a bodhisattva must adopt skill-in-means and be very strategic in terms of the appropriate investment of time and effort. Śāntideva also recommends the two strengths of earnestness and control to enhance the bodhisattva zeal. A bodhisattva must seek his or her objective with earnestness and immediate application. Just as a warrior who drops his sword in battle would pick it up promptly, and just as a young man would react quickly if a snake lands on his lap, a bodhisattva must act swiftly to achieve the goal. Similarly, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must have a sense of control and power over things. Feeling confident and empowered and remaining very agile and aware, a bodhisattva must engage in the practice with confidence and flair, like a lion in the midst of foxes, and with nimbleness and full control over one's body and mind, just like a wind controlling the movement of a piece of cotton on a branch.

A major hindrance to enthusiasm and diligence in bodhisattva practice is attachment to and engagement in worldly and negative distractions. Śāntideva warns the practitioner:
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Knowing that if one is careless, negative tendencies and distractions spread fast like poison in the blood stream, one must exercise great caution and mindfulness in fighting negative temptations and distractions. Being mindful of one's practice and reprimanding oneself for even minor lapses, one must guard one's mind and awareness from defiling emotions, just like one protects one's eyes from dust. A practitioner must diligently practice the bodhisattva path by eschewing attachment to all negative activities.

<h5>Meditation (''dhyāna'', བསམ་གཏན་)</h5>
Meditative concentration is the fifth perfection. It is defined in the classical texts as the state of the mind remaining focused without any distraction. It is the mental ability to remain focused, calm, and unperturbed, and it serves as an antidote to distraction. As a distracted mind is very prone to afflictive emotions and ineffective in accomplishing any tasks, it is very important to develop the meditative concentration of the mind. Only when the mind is focused and has attained calm abiding can it effectively develop insight into the nature of reality and thereby eliminate the afflictive emotions and negative thoughts. Śāntideva puts this clearly in the following verse, which is very frequently quoted:
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The process of pursuing meditative concentration normally begins with practice in solitude, where one's body is free from the frenzy of the world and one's mind is free from mental preoccupation. Śāntideva advises:
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For a beginner working on cultivating meditative concentration, the Buddhist masters advise practitioners to find solitude without disturbance and distraction and to take up solitary retreat. Whether one finds a brief period in one's daily schedule or finds free time to undertake a long retreat lasting weeks, months, or years, the main objective should be to settle the distracted mind and attain mental concentration or calm abiding. As the main reason for not finding time for such solitary practice and cultivating calm abiding is one's preoccupation with worldly affairs, a practitioner is first instructed to give up desire for worldly life, including attachment to people and pursuit of wealth, fame, and power. Masters such as Śāntideva present a compelling account of the futility of worldly endeavors, including relationships and business, and the stress, disappointment, and pain they lead to in this life and the many sufferings in future lifetimes. Talking about people, relationships, and property, Śāntideva writes:
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Śāntideva sums up the flaws of worldly desire in this way:
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With such instructions and admonitions, a practitioner is made to reflect on the worthlessness of the worldly pursuit of wealth, fame, power, and relationships and how they often fuel more greed and stress, creating a vicious cycle of pain and suffering. Thus, a person on the bodhisattva path is encouraged to seek something more meaningful and fulfilling. A practitioner who wishes to attain calm abiding through meditation must curb greed, have contentment, and devote time to meditation.

The actual practice of meditative concentration to develop calm abiding forms a fundamental Buddhist practice, and there are many different meditation traditions and techniques for carrying out the practice. The most common classical procedure is the nine-step meditation technique for establishing calm abiding. Below is a table showing the nine steps in three stages, with the five defects to be removed, the eight antidotes and six powers to be adopted, the four phases of contemplation, and the five signs of progress, as explained by the nineteenth-century Tibetan polymath Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912) based on his ''Gateway to the Way of the Learned'' (མཁས་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པའི་སྒོ།) and ''Heart of Luminosity: The General Meaning of the Essence of the Secret'' (གསང་བ་སྙིང་པོའི་སྤྱི་དོན་འོད་གསལ་སྙིང་པོ།).

[[File:Chart for Karma practice piece.png|900px|class=w-100 m-0 rounded-xl shadow|]]

The detailed instructions for the development of calm abiding can be found in many different texts and meditation traditions. All of them start with physical posture, the most common being the Vairocana posture with seven features, including (1) crossed leg, (2) straight back, (3) slightly tilted neck, (4) open shoulders, (5) eyes on the nose tip, (6) tongue touching upper palate with lips just touching each other, and (7) hands on the lap. Being comfortably and firmly seated to give stability to the body, one may carry out the breathing exercise to clear one's breath. With the body, breath, and the mind calm and clear, one then starts focusing on an object, whether it is an external object like an image or a twig, an internal object like bodily sensations or the breath, or an imaginary object like a deity or mantra one has visualized.

To kick off such a practice, one must overcome the obstacles of indolence and forgetfulness. A person indulging in laziness or forgetful of the instructions for meditation cannot even start the process. Thus, at this initial phase of preparing meditation, one must have strong faith, interest, enthusiasm, and willingness to undertake meditative concentration. One can develop these qualities by studying and learning about the benefits of meditation. Having overcome the obstacles, one starts the practice of meditation with the initial focus, the first of the nine steps.

The practitioner continues to focus on the object with care and exertion. As the beginner's mind will forget the object and get distracted, one uses mindfulness and reflection to continue the focus. When the mind is distracted from the object, one must bring it back and repeat the focus with introspection and concerted effort. Like a wild horse being controlled with bridle and reins, the mind should be trained using mindfulness and introspection. One must overcome not only the obstacle of distraction but also torpor and sleepiness. As one maintains and repeats the focus, one will notice the mind moving very fast and flying off in a flash. This is the first sign of progress called "the experience of motion." At this point, the mind is like a waterfall, restless and nonstop.

As one persists in focusing on the object using the tools of mindfulness and introspection, the mind begins to become calm and tamed. This is the second sign of progress called "the experience of attainment." Here, the mind is like a stream on a steep slope, moving constantly but at a slower pace. As one persists in taming the mind, the obstacles of distraction and torpor also subside, but one would still need to put forth effort to maintain the focus. Using reflection, mindfulness, and introspection, one must continue to focus and tame the mind. This will lead to the mind becoming very pacified and to the third sign of progress called "the experience of becoming accustomed." At this stage, the mind is like a river on the plains, seemingly still while looking from afar but still moving with strong currents. It is like a bee trapped in a vase, generally in one place but still with a lot of movement. The focus is sometimes interrupted, but one must put forth effort to get back to meditative concentration.

With sustained effort, one nears the final phase of meditative concentration when the mind is thoroughly pacified and one can focus without any interruption and exertion. At this stage, showing exertion and making a contrived effort are obstacles. Thus, one remains in single-pointed concentration without any contrived effort. One would have the fourth sign of progress called "the experience of stability." Now, the mind is like an ocean, calm and unshaken in the core but with some motion on the surface. As one remains in such a state with mental equanimity and becomes very familiar with it, one attains meditative equipoise, and one sees the fifth and final sign of progress called "the experience of the perfection of meditation." The mind remains undisturbed in all situations, like a mountain which is not shaken by the winds. There is no effort required to maintain the meditative equipoise, and the practitioner enjoys extreme bliss and agility of the body and mind.

Different schools teach different methods of developing single-pointed concentration, or calm abiding. A very well-known practice for calm abiding today is the mindfulness of the body, which is popularly known as a body scan. Here, one focuses on the sensations in the body, either gradually from the crown of the head to the heels or on a specific part of the body, to develop concentration. Another common practice is the concentration on one's breath, including inhalation and exhalation. There are many techniques of focusing on the breath as one exhales and inhales. Many traditions also use external objects such as images, twigs, pebbles, leaves, etc. as an object of concentration. In some Tibetan Buddhist traditions, a meditator trains first by using ordinary objects such as leaves and twigs and then meditates on the image of the Buddha as a whole or on parts of the image in sequence. One can also visualize a letter or a deity figure as an object of meditation for calm abiding. In the Vajrayāna tradition, it is very common to use a representation of a deity, either in the form of physical artwork or as a mental picture of a deity or mantra, in order to develop concentration and calm abiding. The process of the nine-step meditation to attain calm abiding is also represented in art, with a monkey symbolizing the distracting mode of the mind and an elephant symbolizing the sinking mode of the mind.

{{InlineImage
|float=right
|img=Nine Stages of Shamatha Practice.png
|width=500px
|caption=This thangka depicts the nine progressive stages of mental development. Source: [https://enlightenmentthangka.com/blogs/thangka/nine-stages-of-samatha-meditation?_pos=1&_sid=fbf1cb8ea&_ss=r Enlightenmentthangka.com]
}}

When one attains single-pointed concentration, the mind becomes pliable for spiritual transformation. This state of mind, considered to be equivalent to the mental state of beings in the highest desire realm, is the lowest form of concentration a practitioner needs to cultivate high spiritual realization and qualities. When such a state of mind is further sharpened, one acquires the mental states of the first, second, third, and fourth meditative absorptions with increasing levels of bliss, lucidity, pliability, and efficacy for spiritual transformation. These four states of meditative concentration are considered equivalent to the mental state of the four levels of the form realm in the psychophysical Buddhist cosmology. The power of concentration increases further with deeper levels of absorption. However, in the extreme form of quietest mental state in a sentient being associated with the highest formless realm of worldly existence, the mind is too deeply absorbed in meditation, rendering it too inactive and unviable for spiritual transformation.

Meditative concentration is thus divided according to the different levels of mental concentration. It is also classified into mundane meditative concentration and supramundane meditative concentration. If the meditative concentration is merely a calm state of the mind of a worldly person without the element of wisdom which discerns the nature of reality or truth, it is considered to be worldly meditative concentration. Such a state of the mind may be blissful and lucid, but it is bound to eventually return to an ordinary state of distraction and torpor. When the meditative concentration has the nature of reality as its object, it becomes an insight into truth and thus acquires the power of liberation. Such meditative concentration with truth as its object is a transcendent realization of truth and thus is considered to be the supramundane meditative concentration.

Meditative concentration is also divided into three categories:
#Meditative concentration abiding in peace in this life
#Meditative concentration which attains spiritual qualities
#Meditative concentration which works for sentient beings

The first type of meditative concentration is the mundane state of calm abiding. This comes with a blissful and peaceful experience for the meditator but is not instrumental in bringing about liberation, as it lacks insight. The second type is a meditative concentration informed by values and methods which have soteriological efficacy or some additional power to generate supernatural qualities. This type of meditative concentration can lead to supernatural powers such as clairvoyance or astral travel as well as higher qualities of enlightenment. The third type of meditative concentration is used to help sentient beings. The power of concentration helps one to perform miracles and create things which would benefit sentient beings.

The types of meditative concentration promoted in the Mahāyāna tradition are the second and third types, and the perfection of meditative concentration involves the application of a meditative concentration to the realization of the ultimate nature of things. Thus, it is a nonconceptual, open, and blissful cognitive equipoise which is free from all conceptual constructions and mental fabrications.

<h5>Wisdom (''prajñā'', ཤེས་རབ་)</h5>
The last and the most important of the six perfections is the perfection of wisdom. The sūtras on the perfection of wisdom claim that without wisdom none of the five other practices can really become a genuine practice of perfection. Thus, Śāntideva claims that the other perfections are means to the end, which is wisdom, for only wisdom can ultimately eliminate the root of suffering.
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Wisdom, in general, is the capacity for critical thinking and discernment of the way things are. Wisdom refers to the acute sense of judgement and sagacity when juxtaposed with compassion. However, in the specific context of Buddhist study and practice, wisdom refers to the understanding and realization of truth and the nature of reality, such as the knowledge and experience of nonself, impermanence, interdependence, and the emptiness of self-existence. In the Mahāyāna, the perfection of wisdom pertains to the knowledge and realization of the highest truth, the ultimate nature of things, whatever that is conceived to be in the particular tradition.

The Madhyamaka, or the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna and his followers, such as Candrakīrti, Śāntideva, Śāntarakṣita and Atiśa—the philosophical system with which the Tibetan Buddhist tradition of bodhicitta practice is associated—expounds the perfection of wisdom as the knowledge of the emptiness of all phenomena. Wisdom, in this system, refers to the penetrating insight into the ultimate truth, which is defined as emptiness free from all extremes or fabrications. In their ultimate nature, things are neither existent, nor nonexistent, both, or neither. Ultimate nature is beyond production and cessation, birth and death, time and space, thoughts and words. Śāntideva elucidates this point in the following verse:
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The world exists only on a relative level as mere designations and conventions. On their ultimate level, everything is empty of their own being, and the perfection of wisdom is the knowledge of such emptiness. Such wisdom, then, is cultivated initially through study, then through contemplation, and eventually through meditation. Thus, wisdom is often classified into three categories:
#Wisdom through study
#Wisdom through reflection
#Wisdom through meditation

A practitioner starts the practice of the perfection of wisdom by studying and understanding the ultimate truth of emptiness. The classic texts of the Middle Way school, such as Nāgārjuna's ''Root Verses on the Middle Way'' (''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''), Candrakīrti's ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''), Śāntarakṣita's ''Ornament of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakālaṃkāra''), and Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra''), present numerous reductive and analytical arguments to establish the empty nature of all phenomena. Among the many arguments, the following five are known as the great reasoning of the Middle Way. They establish the emptiness of the causes, effects, both causes and effects, the nature of things, and of all aspects of phenomena.
#A vase is empty of true arising because it does not arise from itself, another, both, or nothing.
#A vase is empty of true production because neither an existent effect nor a nonexistent effect, both, or neither is produced.
#A vase is empty of true arising because it neither arises instantly nor arises gradually.
#A vase is empty of true nature because it is without the nature of one or many.
#A vase is empty of true nature because they are dependently originated.

A student of the Middle Way uses these and numerous other logical arguments and analyses to fully understand the emptiness of all things, including emptiness itself. Through persistent study and reflection, a practitioner gains a deep understanding and confidence in the nature of emptiness. With further reflection and familiarization, the practitioner develops a strong conviction that gradually turns into a direct experience and realization of emptiness—the true form of the perfection of wisdom.

Śāntideva's chapter on wisdom in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' presents the cultivation of wisdom through the common Buddhist practice of nonself and the four points of mindfulness.

<h5>Meditation on the Nonself of a Person</h5>
A person on the bodhisattva path must investigate the existence of the self, or "I," to which one is very attached. It is from the mistaken notion of the "I" that the notions of you, he, she, and they arise in contrast to this notion of "I." Such dualistic clinging leads to a like for oneself and what belongs to oneself and a dislike for others. This launches the cycle of attachment, aversion, and other afflictive emotions and actions. It is essential for a practitioner on the path to enlightenment to investigate the existence of the self in order to uproot the cause of samsara. Śāntideva provides the following instructions for such a reductive examination:
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Carrying out such analysis, a practitioner must thoroughly understand the absence of a self, or "I," in all beings. In his ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', Candrakīrti presents the sevenfold reasoning of the chariot to establish the emptiness of self. A chariot does not truly exist because it is not (1) identical, (2) heterogeneous, (3) possessive, (4) the located, (5) the locus, (6) the shape, or (7) the collection of the parts. The chariot is a mere label given to the assembly of the parts with a specific shape and a specific function. There is no real chariot other than the parts, and the parts do not exist other than their own parts. Similarly, a person is a mere designation given to the assembly of psycho-physical constituents in a specific structure performing a specific function. There is no real person, and all things are empty of a self or what belongs to a self. Śāntideva compares the person to a banana plant.
{{PullBcaVerses|9.74}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Wandering beings, thus, resemble dreams,
And also the banana tree, if you examine well. (9.150ab)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 158.</ref>
}}
Using such a rigorous analytical approach, a seeker of the perfection of wisdom must study and thoroughly understand the absence or emptiness of the self. The knowledge of nonself is an indispensable and central component of the Buddhist path to enlightenment. In Śāntideva's work and in the Middle Way school in general, such analyses and knowledge is further extended to understand the emptiness of all phenomena through the practice of the four points of mindfulness.

<h4>Mindfulness of the Body</h4>
A practitioner establishes the emptiness of the body by mentally dismembering the body in search of the body that we assume to really exist and that we deeply cherish. Śāntideva instructs a practitioner to look into the parts of the body in order to realize the emptiness of the body. The body does not exist either identical to or different from the parts. The same applies to the parts. He writes:
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The contemplation on the body helps one overcome one of the strongest fetters in existence: the attachment to the body. A bodhisattva must strive to give up attachment to the body and make use of it for the benefit of all sentient beings.

<h4>Mindfulness of Sensation</h4>
Another serious fetter in life is the attachment to pleasure and enjoyable sensations. Sentient beings crave pleasure and indulge in vices for pleasure. They hate pain and engage in negative actions to avoid pain and suffering. Thus, a practitioner of the bodhisattva path must see the empty nature of pleasure and pain. Śāntideva helps the practitioner investigate the experience of pain and pleasure by looking at the cause, effect, and nature of sensation.
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When one examines the nature of sensation, one can see that pain and pleasure are subjective, relative, and impermanent. If pain truly exists, there cannot be pleasure and vice versa. Because they rise and disappear like an illusion, there is no real pain or pleasure. Sensation arises from the encounter of senses and sense objects, but in reality we cannot see such an encounter or contact. One which has already touched cannot come into touch, and one which has not touched cannot contact either. With contact, there cannot be sensation. Similarly, there is no agent or person who can create and feel sensation. Śāntideva states:
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In this manner, the practitioner on the bodhisattva path must contemplate the empty nature of sensation and see all pain and pleasure to be like a magical illusion.

<h4>Mindfulness of the Mind</h4>
Just as there is no real painful or pleasant sensation and feeling, there is no real consciousness or mind. Śāntideva states:
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The mind plays the central role in the Buddhist spiritual system as the root cause and foundation of all things, so much so that Buddhism is often called a science of the mind or an art of mind training. The Buddha has claimed that the mind is the chief and everything is mind-made. In this respect, the knowledge of the emptiness of the mind is the most important form of wisdom. Through realizing the empty nature of the mind, one can realize the emptiness of all phenomena, as all phenomena have their base in the mind.

The meditation on the empty nature of the mind is one of the most important practices in Mahāyāna Buddhism, particularly in the Middle Way school, and there are many different methods and techniques for this meditation. One method is to examine the spatial location of the mind. Buddhist thinkers and mystics argue that this thing called the mind cannot be found within the body, without, or in between. Śāntideva remarks:
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In the Mahāyāna pith instructions on the emptiness of the mind, or what is known as mind-pointing instructions in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, the master instructs the disciple to search for the mind inside the body, outside the body, and in between. A practitioner is asked to investigate the spatial location of the mind, only to realize that the mind has no spatial existence or dimension. Similarly, the disciple is made to examine the shape, color, structure, or nature of the mind through an instruction called "the destruction of the mind's structure." Through this the practitioner realizes that the mind does not have concrete existence and is utterly empty of an independent existence.

Not only is the mind or consciousness not found anywhere or in any shape or form, it also does not arise, as it cannot arise before, after, or at the same time as its object. A consciousness has to be conscious of an object, but in reality it cannot be conscious of an object which exists before, after, or at the same time as the consciousness itself. Moreover, if the object that is cognized, such as the body, does not exist, how can the consciousness which cognizes exist, for they are dependent on each other.

In another very popular meditation on the empty nature of the mind, a practitioner examines the temporal existence of mind. The past mind does not exist because it has already ceased to exist, and the future mind cannot exist, as it is yet to be. There is no present mind to be found in any shape or color in between the past and the present. Thus, no mind can be found to truly exist if one carefully examines the case.

The meditation on the empty nature of the mind using different techniques forms the most sacred and powerful practice of the perfection of wisdom in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions. More detailed and personalized instructions, often in the form of oral transmissions, are normally sought from individual teachers. Thus, a sketch is presented here, but a practitioner must rely on a specific teacher for proper guidance in following traditional procedures.

<h4>Mindfulness of Phenomena</h4>
The fourth point of mindfulness is the emptiness of all phenomena. Using the same reductive analyses applied to the body, sensation, and mind, a practitioner meditates on the absence of the true existence of all phenomena. One can use the great reasonings of the Middle Way to cultivate the understanding of the empty nature of all phenomena or use some other arguments and methods. There are also many other techniques, particularly those belonging to the Vajrayāna tradition, such as completion stage practices, dream yoga, luminosity practice, and meditation on empty form in the Kālacakra, Mahāmudrā, and Dzogchen traditions, which are powerful methods to realize the emptiness of all phenomena.

The most common and persuasive method found in the literature of the Middle Way school to establish the emptiness of all phenomena is the reasoning of dependent origination. All phenomena lack self-existence because they are either dependently produced (e.g., a plant from a seed, soil, moisture, and heat) or dependently conceived (e.g., the concept "here" and "there"). Śāntideva aptly demonstrates this through the example of a parent and a child.
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He goes on to state that the mind which analyzes and the phenomena which it investigates are also mutually dependent and therefore in reality without true independent existence. Thus, just as the mind did not exist, all phenomena which it takes as its object also do not exist. They are assumed to exist based on convention.
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<h4>Freedom from All Fabrications</h4>
Using numerous logical arguments containing a rigorous reductive analysis, a practitioner contemplates how the body, sensation, mind, and, for that matter, all phenomena do not exist in real terms. The external world of matter is made up of atoms, and the internal world of consciousness is made up of moments of cognitive flashes and impulses. Yet, if one investigates the atoms and moments of consciousness using the reductive process of examination, they cannot be found to truly exist. In the same way, neither can any process of production, cessation, coming, going, etc. be found to exist. We assume everything to exist on a conventional level for transactional purposes, but nothing exists on the ultimate level when thoroughly examined. Not even "nothing" exists.

The initial focus of the meditation on emptiness should be to negate existence because sentient beings are fraught with the notion that things really exist and are either attached or averse to them. After clinging to things as real, they give rise to defiling emotions such as attachment and fear, which in turn leads to negative actions and suffering. Thus, the practitioners must put their initial emphasis on establishing that things are empty of inherent self-existence or real nature. Much of the logical procedures and meditation instructions focus on eliminating the notion of existence, establishing that all phenomena are empty of real existence, and revealing/concluding that all empirical experiences are like magical illusions and reflections in a mirror. They appear but are empty of real existence.

After one has negated the notion of existence and grasped the emptiness of things, it is also important to go beyond emptiness, for emptiness is also unreal and only a relative concept. How can there be nonexistence without existence? Just as there is no father without a child or here without there, emptiness is dependent on the nonempty. If the nonexistent does not exist, emptiness can't exist either. In this way, a practitioner drops both the notion of existence and nonexistence, being and nonbeing, is and is not, the nonempty and empty, production and nonproduction, etc.

In the final ontology of the Middle Way, one must reject any instances of a real existence, nonexistence, both, or neither. A practitioner must transcend all four mental fabrications of being, nonbeing, both and neither. Everything, including emptiness itself, is utterly empty and nonapprehensible, akin to the bare, clear openness of space. Only when the mind is free from fixation on a thing, non-thing, or neither does it naturally rest in its true state of peace, free from the slightest tension, stress, and apprehension. Only then can one effectively cut through the habitual propensities for self-love, attachment, hatred, stupidity, jealousy, etc.

It is said in ''The King of Meditation Absorption Sūtra'' (''Samādhirājasūtra''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=What is "existence" and "nonexistence" are both extremes; so are "purity" and "impurity" extremes. Therefore, abandoning the extremes of both, the wise surely should not abide even in the middle.<ref>''yod dang med ces bya ba gnyi ga mtha<i>'</i>''/ /''gtsang dang mi gtsang 'di yang mtha' yin te''/ /''de phyir gnyis ka'i mtha' ni rnam spangs nas''/ /''mkhas pa dbus la'ang gnas par yong mi byed''/ /. See ''Samādhirājasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos thams cad kyi rang bzhin mnyam pa nyid rnam par spros pa ting nge 'dzin gyi rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D127, mdo sde, vol. 55, da, fol. 27a. http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0127.</ref>
}}
In the ultimate meditation on wisdom, the practitioner immerses him or herself into a deep experience of emptiness with no sense of engagement or withdrawal, acceptance or rejection, likes or dislikes, pleasure or pain. During the postmeditation state, the practitioner is constantly aware of the illusory nature of things. Sustained practice of such meditation on emptiness and postmeditation awareness, Śāntideva points out, would not only help the person face the ups and downs of life with the same level of ease and equanimity but also induces an intense surge of compassion for the beings who are drowning in the sea of suffering. It inspires one to work evermore to free other beings who are caught in the prison of ignorance, mistakenly holding illusory and empty things to be real. Just as compassion for other beings leads to developing the wisdom to see things as they really are, wisdom and insight into the true nature of things helps enhance the vigor of compassion for all beings, thereby having wisdom and compassion mutually strengthen each other.
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Practice/Bodhicitta in Practice

2026-07-22T10:25:21Z

KPhuntsho:

{{EditorialContent
|EditorialAuthor=Phuntsho, Karma
|sub-theme=Bodhicitta in Practice
|watermark=Practice
|TermTopics=Debate; Compassion; Arousing Bodhicitta; Protecting Bodhicitta; Increasing Bodhicitta; Six Perfections; Tonglen; Aspirational Bodhicitta; Active Bodhicitta; Equanimity; Equalizing and Exchanging Self and Others; Seven-Point Instructions of Cause and Effect; Four Immeasurables
|main-text={{Jumbo
|full-width=yes
|image=File:TKP-Pawo-Print-6TKP10751.web .jpg
|imageposition=70% 50%
|text=Bodhicitta—the altruistic intention to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all beings—is essential in Mahāyāna Buddhist practice. It is regarded as the defining motivation that transforms any spiritual activity into a genuine Mahāyāna path. Without bodhicitta, progress toward buddhahood is considered impossible. Cultivating bodhicitta involves reflection, meditation, ethical conduct, and guidance from qualified teachers, and is formalized through the bodhisattva vow. Its continual practice is seen as the foundation and driving force for all Mahāyāna spiritual development.
}}
<h2>[[The Bodhicitta Prayer]]</h2>
<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་མཆོག་རིན་པོ་ཆེ། །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">May the sublime and precious bodhicitta</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">མ་སྐྱེས་པ་རྣམས་སྐྱེས་གྱུར་ཅིག །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">Arise in those in whom it has not arisen.</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">སྐྱེས་པ་ཉམས་པ་མེད་པར་ཡང་། །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">Where it has arisen, may it never decline</div>

<div class="tibetan-classic-unicode carnelian pb-4" style="font-size: 35pt;">གོང་ནས་གོང་དུ་འཕེལ་བར་ཤོག །</div>
<div class="font-size-20pt" style="color: #1e3a5f;">But grow and flourish more and more.</div>

<h2>Introduction</h2>

The application of bodhicitta in practice is central to the Mahāyāna pursuit of full enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings. According to Mahāyāna masters, bodhicitta is a prerequisite for a practice or path to qualify as a Mahāyāna path leading to the state of a fully awakened buddha. Only when the practice is motivated or informed by bodhicitta (བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་རྩིས་ཟིན་པ་) can it be considered as a bona fide part of the Mahāyāna path. Thus, the masters strongly recommend the cultivation of the altruistic thought of bodhicitta before beginning any project or activity. This is because, in the Buddhist system, the moral value of an action is determined by the quality of intention or the state of the mind.

Buddhist masters teach that mind can be in any of these three states:
#A virtuous state with positive thoughts and emotions, such as thirst for knowledge, devotion, compassion, love, etc.
#A nonvirtuous state with negative thoughts and emotions, such as arrogance, hatred, jealousy, etc.
#A neutral state with neither positive nor negative states of mind.

Furthermore, the virtuous mind can be of three types:
#An inferior mind wishing happiness and well-being in this mundane world.
#A middling mind wishing a higher state of lasting happiness, fulfillment, and freedom beyond the ordinary world.
#A superior mind wishing a higher state of lasting happiness for all sentient beings.

This last superior mind is bodhicitta and the one recommended by the Mahāyāna masters before beginning any project or activity.

Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, a twentieth-century teacher of bodhicitta, thus writes in ''The Jewel Lamp: A Praise of Bodhicitta'' (བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་ཀྱི་བསྟོད་པ་རིན་ཆེན་སྒྲོན་མ།):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Should one launch something, launch with bodhicitta.
Should one think of something, think of bodhicitta.
Should one analyze something, analyze with bodhicitta.
Should one examine something, examine with bodhicitta. (v. 98)<ref>''brtsam na byang chub sems las brtsam''// ''bsam na byang chub sems nyid bsam''// ''dpyad na byang chub sems su dpyad''// ''brtag na byang chub sems la brtag''//. Khunu Lama Tenzin Gyaltsen, ''Byang chub sems kyi bstod pa rin chen sgron ma'' (Dharamsala: Dga' ldan pho brang, 2018), 29, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW8LS66303.</ref>
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Patrul Rinpoche, a paragon of bodhicitta practice in nineteenth-century Tibet, also proclaimed in his ''Aspiration to Generate Bodhicitta'' (བསྐལ་མང་གོང་ནས་སོགས།):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=If present, this alone is sufficient for reaching buddhahood.
If this is absent, one is handicapped in reaching buddhahood.
May I generate this pure thought of awakening,
The unmistaken seed of buddhahood. (v. 6)<ref>''yod na sangs rgyas sgrub la des chog cing''/ /''med na sangs rgyas sgrub la thabs chags pa''/ /''sangs rgyas 'grub pa'i sa bon ma nor ba''/ /''rnam dag byang chub sems mchog bskyed par shog''. See Patrul Rinpoche, ''Bskal mang gong nas sogs'', in Gsung 'bum o rgyan 'jigs med chos kyi dbang po (Chengdu: Si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2003), 8: 356, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW24829_B101CB.</ref>
}}
In the beginning, a practitioner must cultivate the mind (''cittotpāda'') of awakening through a concerted effort by taking the bodhisattva vow repeatedly, engaging in the various contemplative techniques, receiving teachings on bodhicitta and bodhisattva practices, and utilizing other methods. Gradually, one would become accustomed to thinking of bodhicitta, which would also become stronger and constant. When bodhicitta naturally arises without effort, a person is said to have formally become a bodhisattva. Thus, Jigme Lingpa said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=It is more important to have the supreme mind naturally arise than to consciously cultivate it.<ref>Jigme Lingpa, ''Yon tan rin po che'i mdzod kyi rgya cher 'grel pa bden gnyis shing rta rgyu mtshan nyid kyi theg pa'i skor'', in Gsung 'bum 'jigs med gling pa (Gangtok, Sikkim: Sonam T. Kazi, 1970–75), 1: 246b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW1KG10193_E90C9C.</ref>
}}
However, a beginner must make a contrived effort to generate bodhicitta, firstly by cultivating the aspiring bodhicitta and then by engaging in the practice of engaged bodhicitta. Śāntideva presents the distinction between the two in the following verses from his text ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra''):
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One must first have the thought to take all sentient beings to the state of the Buddha just as one must first have the thought to go to Bodh Gaya before one starts the journey. Having generated the strong motivation to take all sentient beings to buddhahood, one must then engage in the actual paths and practices which lead them to the goal. The bodhisattva road consists of a long and arduous practice of the six perfections: giving, discipline, patience, effort, meditation and wisdom. These six topics cover the entire range of practices a person must take up as a bodhisattva to reach buddhahood. They also include the practice of both relative bodhicitta, or the moral mental resolve to take all sentient beings to the state of full awakening, and ultimate bodhicitta, which is the deep understanding and experience of the ultimate nature of all things.

<h2>Generating Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Vow</h2>
A beginner on the Mahāyāna path cultivates the thought of awakening by repeatedly wishing to take all sentient beings as vast as space to the unsurpassed, complete, and perfect state of the Buddha. To formally confirm such desire and express it as a commitment, a beginner undertakes the confirmation of the thought of awakening through a ritual of oath-taking. The first step in the procedure of such a ritual, and in fact in the general Buddhist process of self-transformation, is the reflection on the wonderful physical and psychological conditions one possesses as an able human being.

<h3>Physical Support</h3>
The meditation or reflection on the rarity and preciousness of humanhood is the first topic of meditation in almost all Tibetan Buddhist traditions when one starts a practice or meditation program. One must reflect, from different perspectives, on how humanhood, with its unique freedoms and advantages, is hard to find, and how it is a precious opportunity to seek enlightenment. Human existence offers a powerful combination of rational thinking and emotional capacity, creating ideal conditions to pursue the end of suffering and attain ultimate happiness.

Buddhist texts present the following hypothetical analogy to illustrate this rarity. Suppose a blind turtle lives at the bottom of an ocean and comes to the surface only once every hundred years. Meanwhile, floating on the ocean's surface is a wooden yoke being constantly swayed by the waves. Human birth, it is argued, is rarer than the chance of this turtle, during its brief surface visit, happening to put its neck directly through this floating yoke. Using such examples and many other methods, one is made to see the preciousness of human birth.

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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Khandro Rinpoche: <em>What Is a Precious Human Life?</em>
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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
|id=iQ_NiKurD1c
|caption=Thubten Chonyi: <em>The Four Thoughts That Turn the Mind to the Dharma</em>
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Such a human state is not only rare and precious but very fragile. As such, one should meditate on the certainty of death and the uncertainty of when and how it will come. A student carries out meditation on the impermanence of life in order to cherish momentary existence and urgently make the best use of it. Meditation on the rarity of human existence and its impermanent nature is often followed by meditation on the law of cause and effect and the flaws of the cycle of existence, also known as samsara. If one does not take advantage of this fleeting human state to break the cycle of rebirth, one is bound to follow the law of cause and effect, and given the negative actions accumulated in innumerable lifetimes in the past, one is bound to remain trapped in this cycle of existence, which is filled with misery and pain. These four points of meditation, which often constitute the first set of topics for meditation in Tibetan Buddhism, are known as the four points of mind turning (བློ་ལྡོག་རྣམ་པ་བཞི་), as they turn one's mind away from the cycle of ordinary existence and are considered to be foundational practices on the spiritual path.

<h3>Mental Support</h3>
Along with holding dear the precious state of humanhood, one must also cherish and take advantage of the brief mental moments of positive thought and moral growth. Śāntideva writes in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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In the chaos of samsara, with its endless mundane preoccupations and unrelenting ignorance, it is rare to have clear virtuous thoughts. If they happen to occur briefly through the blessings of the Buddha, they fade away as quickly as they appear. Thus, it is important to grasp the opportunities when they appear.

Among the various kinds of virtuous thoughts, righteous ''faith'' is fundamental for generating the thought of awakening. It is important to have faith and trust in the Buddha, his teachings, and those following his teachings with proper understanding. Above all, it is important to develop faith and trust in the state of enlightenment, or buddhahood, in the noble qualities and characteristics buddhahood comes with, and in the compassionate engagements of the bodhisattvas. It is mainly through such faith and the knowledge gained through study, reflection, and teachings that one would seriously take up the project of generating the thought of awakening. Thus, the Buddha advises in ''The Dhāraṇī Spell of the Jewel Torch'' (''Ratnolkādhāraṇī''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Having faith in the Buddha and the qualities of the Buddha,
In the conducts of the heirs of the Buddha,
And in the unsurpassed state of enlightenment,
The superior beings generate the thought of enlightenment.

Faith is a prerequisite, like a mother who nurtures.
It protects and enhances good qualities.<ref>''Ratnolkādhāraṇī'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa dkon mchog ta la la'i gzungs zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D145, mdo sde, vol. 57, pa, fol. 63b, purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0145.</ref>
}}
Citing such verses, a teacher often elaborates on the benefits of having faith and its crucial role in spiritual transformation with the aim of helping a student generate faith in the teacher, teachings, paths, and results. There is a popular Tibetan saying that goes: "For the hook of the Buddha's compassion to catch hold, sentient beings need the ring of faith." Another popular Buddhist statement found in ''The Sūtra of Ten Dharmas'' (''Daśadharmakasūtra'') says, "A person without faith cannot give rise to positive things just as a burnt seed won't produce a green sprout."<ref>''dad pa med pa'i mi la ni''/ /''dkar po'i chos rnams mi skye ste''/ /''me yis sa bon tshig rnams la''/ /''myu gu sngon po ji bzhin no''//. See ''Daśadharmakasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos bcu pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D53, dkon brtsegs, vol. 40, kha, fol. 166a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0053. See also ''Mañjuśrī Root Tantra'' (''Āryamañjuśrīmūlatantra'', ''<i>'</i>Phags pa 'jam dpal gyi rtsa ba'i rgyud'', in Derge Kangyur D543, rgyud, vol. 88, na, fol. 159b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0543.</ref>

A more specific faith required in this case is the faith and trust in the value and merits of the thought of awakening so that one would seek it earnestly. For this reason, many sūtras and masters like Śāntideva extol the power of bodhicitta as a source of incredible merit and benefit. It is recommended that a student repeatedly reflect on the merits of bodhicitta and generate great interest in and high regard for the thought of awakening, resulting in a strong enthusiasm to cultivate it.

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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Venerable Thubten Chodron: <em>On Faith</em>
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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Geshe Kelsang Wangmo: <em>Buddhism Says Don't Have Faith? The Radical Teaching That Changes Everything</em>
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Another fundamental emotion one must cherish and cultivate as a condition for the thought of awakening is ''compassion'', an intense wish to free all sentient beings from suffering and the causes of suffering. Compassion is considered to be the root of the thought of awakening, which is defined as having the two components of compassion and wisdom. Compassion feels the suffering of sentient beings, and wisdom understands the perfect state of the Buddha as the ultimate freedom from suffering. Students are instructed to cultivate compassion, and teachers use different methods, including storytelling, as a way to engender compassion and convince students of its spiritual efficacy and power.<ref>Read about the power of compassion through Asaṅga's story. For example, see Lama Chimpa and Alaka Chattopadhyaya, trans., ''Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India'', ed. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990), 154–58, https://archive.org/details/TaranathasHistoryOfBuddhismInIndia/page/n183/mode/2up.</ref> Motivated by the intense compassion to deliver sentient beings from suffering and the deep faith in buddhahood as the ultimate state of deliverance, one must have an earnest wish to seek the state of the Buddha.

<h3>Preceptorial Support</h3>
Just as a person on a long and arduous journey to an unknown place needs a good guide, it is vital to have a knowledgeable and experienced teacher to guide the student on the spiritual path to enlightenment. Such a spiritual master is often called a ''kalyāṇamitra'', or virtuous friend. In ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' (''Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra''), the Buddha compares such a master to a mother who gives birth, a father who attends to the child's welfare, a nanny who constantly looks after the child, a guide who shows the path, a doctor who heals, a guard who protects, etc.<ref>''rigs kyi bu khyod kyis bdag la ni nad par 'du shes bskyed do''/ /''dge ba'i bshes gnyen la ni sman pa'i 'du shes dang''/ ''gdams ngag la ni sman gyi 'du shes dang''/ ''nan tan nyams su blang ba la ni nad 'tsho ba'i 'du shes bskyed par bya'o''/. ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' makes up the lengthy final chapter of ''The Sūtra of the Ornament of the Buddhas'' (''Buddhāvataṃsakamahāvaipūlyasūtra''). For this passage, see ''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtrāt gaṇḍavyūhasūtraḥ paṭalaḥ'' (''Shin tu rgyas pa chen po'i mdo sangs rgyas phal po che zhes bya ba las sdong pos brgyan pa'i le'u ste bzhi bcu rtsa''), in Derge Kangyur D44, phal chen, vol. 38, nga, fol. 286b–287a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/WA0RK0044-45.</ref>

Many Buddhist writings discuss the qualities and character of a spiritual teacher, how to find and follow such a teacher, and the numerous benefits of following the teacher. In ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', Śāntideva describes the teacher for someone on the Mahāyāna path as having two qualities.
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A teacher must be very learned in the Mahāyāna system and also practice the path with integrity. Maitreya describes the Mahāyāna teacher as having nine qualities in ''The Ornament of Mahāyāna Sūtra'' (''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Follow a teacher who is disciplined, gentle and fully at peace,
Who has superior qualities, diligence, and knowledge of scriptures,
Who has realized the truth, and is skilled in speech,
And one who is an epitome of love, and indefatigable.<ref>Maitreya, ''Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārakārikā'' (''Theg pa chen po mdo sde'i rgyan zhes bya ba'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D4020, sems tsam, vol. 123, phi, fol. 25b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_4020.</ref>
}}

As one begins the process of a bodhicitta practice, it is important to have a teacher for the ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow. In ''The Compendium of Training'' (''Śikṣāsamuccaya''), Śāntideva highly recommends having a teacher bestow the bodhisattva vow in person, as such a presence would strengthen the process of taking the vow and also subsequently help one to observe the precepts carefully. If one cannot find or access a teacher who can administer the vows, one can either take the vow in the presence of holy shrines and objects or by visualizing the buddhas and bodhisattvas before oneself. However, this is more difficult for a beginner, particularly when carrying out the ritual according to the Vast Conduct tradition, in which the process of granting the vow for the engaged bodhicitta is mainly composed of reading out the lines for oath-taking by a preceptor or officiant. Thus, having a teacher is important for the process of taking the bodhisattva vow, but the role of the teacher extends beyond the initial ritual of taking the vow and spans the entire journey to perfect enlightenment.

As one greatly benefits from the presence and guidance of a teacher, one can have many teachers, as did Sudhana, the son of a merchant whose story is told in ''The Stem Array Sūtra''. Instructed by Mañjuśrī, Sudhana travels from place to place seeking 110 teachers before he arrives in the presence of Maitreya. Like the case of Sudhana, the teachers guide the student on the spiritual path throughout the entire journey, and the student must follow the teacher with great devotion and trust. In ''The Stem Array Sūtra'', the young man Śrīsambhava and the girl Śrīmati give Sudhana a long discourse on the benefits of following a teacher and the manner in which one must follow a teacher. They advise Sudhana to see himself as a sick person, the teacher as a doctor, the teachings as medicine, and the adoption of the teachings into practice as the treatment leading to the cure.<ref>''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtrāt gaṇḍavyūhasūtraḥ paṭalaḥ'' (''Shin tu rgyas pa chen po'i mdo sangs rgyas phal po che zhes bya ba las sdong pos brgyan pa'i le'u ste bzhi bcu rtsa''), in Derge Kangyur, D44, phal chen, vol. 38, a, fol. 287a, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/WA0RK0044-45.</ref> This is one of the most powerful similes to illustrate one's relationship with a teacher.

<h3>The Procedure for Taking the Vow</h3>
There are two different Mahāyāna traditions for the ritual of administering and taking the bodhisattva vow. One is the ritual adopted in the Profound View tradition (ཟབ་མོ་ལྟ་བརྒྱུད་, pronounced "Zabmo Tagyu") coming down from Nāgārjuna and his followers, and the other is the ritual passed down in the Vast Conduct (རྒྱ་ཆེན་སྤྱོད་བརྒྱུད་, pronounced "Gyachen Chogyu" or "Gyachen Chopegyu") tradition from Maitreya, Asaṅga, and their followers. While the two traditions share the overall framework of the oath-taking ritual, the liturgies and fine points of procedures vary between them. Today, verses from the second and third chapter of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' are used commonly as the standard liturgy for the bodhisattva vow ritual in the Profound View tradition. This procedure is based on what was practiced in the old Kadam tradition and later promoted by Patrul Rinpoche.

The Vast Conduct tradition uses a different set of recitations in prose to take the vow of aspiring bodhicitta and a set of questions and answers for the engaged bodhicitta vow as passed down from Atiśa. Kongtrul Lodrö Taye presents detailed liturgies and explanations for both traditions in the third volume of his Treasury of Precious Instructions (གདམས་ངག་རིན་པོ་ཆེའི་མཛོད།).<ref>For vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions, see Tsadra's Damngak Rinpoche Dzö website, https://dnz.tsadra.org/index.php/DNZ-03-GA-001. For an English translation of the third volume, see Artemus B. Engle, trans., ''Kadam: Stages of the Path, Mind Training and Esoteric Practice, Part 1,'' vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet (Gdams ngag rin po che'i mdzod), compiled by Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (Boulder, CO: Snow Lion, 2024).</ref>

{{Standout|'''An example of a text for taking the vow can be found here:'''
:[[Articles/The_Ritual_for_the_Bodhisattva_Vow_Arranged_according_to_the_Tradition_of_Patrul_Rinpoche_(Chatral_Rinpoche_2008)|༄༅། །བྱང་སྡོམ་བླང་ཆོག་དཔལ་སྤྲུལ་གསུང་རྒྱུན་ལྟར་བཀོད་པ་བཞུགས་སོ། །]]
:[[Articles/The_Ritual_for_the_Bodhisattva_Vow_Arranged_according_to_the_Tradition_of_Patrul_Rinpoche_(Chatral_Rinpoche_2008)|The Ritual for the Bodhisattva Vow]]
:Arranged According to the Tradition of Patrul Rinpoche
:by Chatral Rinpoche}}

<h4>The Seven-Limb Prayer</h4>
The actual act of taking the bodhisattva vow is normally preceded by the seven-limb practice, which includes prostration, offering, confession, rejoicing, requesting to teach, requesting to live long, and dedication of merits. This standard ritual of worship is said to help the candidate gain the required karmic merit and overcome obstacles so as to become a ready recipient of the bodhisattva vow. The verses from ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions"'' (''Bhadracaryāpraṇidhānarāja'') are widely used as a chant for carrying out the seven-limb prayer.

In order to conduct the bodhisattva vow ritual, one should first set up a physical shrine with a clean and beautiful array of offering materials, such as water, flowers, incense, food, etc., and bless them with mantras for offerings. One may also visualize such a shrine and the range of offerings. The buddhas, bodhisattvas, and all enlightened and righteous spiritual beings are then invited to the sacred space to bestow the bodhisattva vow.

<h5>1. Prostration</h5>
The practice of prostration is carried out mentally with or without physical prostration and is often accompanied by chanting verses. A practitioner normally does a simple prostration of devotion to the buddhas and bodhisattvas by bowing down and touching the ground with one's forehead, palms, and knees. One imagines that one's negativities of the body, speech, and mind, and the five poisons of ignorance, attachment, aversion, jealousy, and pride are cleansed as one bows down, and the blessings of the enlightened body, speech, mind, qualities, and activities of the Buddha are received when one stands up.

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In a more advanced practice of prostration, one can mentally multiply one's body into countless numbers and make prostrations to buddhas in all directions. The highest form of prostration is said to be the practice of making prostration with no fixed concept or notion of the subject making the prostration, the object to whom the prostration is made, and the actual action of prostration. Everything is seen as an illusory flux with no self-existence, like a dream.

<h5>2. Offering</h5>
Prostration is followed by the practice of offerings. One can set up an array of offerings of actual things one possesses, including food, drinks, flowers, incense, etc. One can also make offerings of beautiful lands, waterfalls, streams, birds, flowers, jewels, riches, and other pleasant things which exist in the world but are not personally owned. In addition, one can make offerings of wonderful things through visualization, such as offerings of celestial showers or feasts to the buddhas and bodhisattvas. The magnificent offerings, real or imaginary, can be further multiplied to fill the universe in all directions.

A common all-inclusive offering is the offering of the ''maṇḍala'', or the universe with all the riches and pleasant objects in it. A practitioner visualizes the entire universe by making a hand gesture of it or by holding a replica of the world as presented in the ancient Indian cosmology. There are short and long versions of liturgies for making the maṇḍala offering.

Śāntideva also provides verses to make the offering of one's body, enjoyments, and virtues. He mentions these three sets of possessions in both his works, ''The Compendium of Training'' and ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''. Śāntideva emphatically encourages the aspiring bodhisattva to give away these three possessions—which are the main objects of attachment and the main cause of self-centricity and its corollary problems—for the sake of all sentient beings. The offering of one's body, enjoyments, and virtues comprise the giving away of the most cherished physical and psychological properties.

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<h5>3. Confession</h5>
Offering, which helps one accrue karmic merit, is followed by the practice of confession, which removes the karmic impurities that can obstruct the cultivation of the thought of awakening. Using various texts such as ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps'' (''Triskandhakasūtra''), ''General Confessions'' (སྤྱི་བཤགས།), and verses from chapter 2 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', one must confess and make amends for one's bodily, verbal, and mental wrongdoings, which include committing sinful actions or violating a precept one has promised to observe.

The confession must possess the four characteristics known as the ''four powers'' to become effective: intense remorse, sincere restoration, remedial action, and reliable support.

<h5>4. Rejoicing</h5>
The fourth limb of the practice is to rejoice in the good works of both oneself and others. From the enlightened activities of the buddhas of the three times and the virtuous activities of all saints to the wholesome deeds of all beings, one must feel proud of them and truly rejoice in them. Rejoicing in good works is considered to be an easy way to gain merit.

<h5>5. Requesting to Teach</h5>
It is the light of Dharma that is required to clear ignorance, the root cause of suffering. Yet, the teachers are reluctant to teach without earnest interest from the students, as the truth is profound and sentient beings are generally preoccupied with vanity. Thus, in the manner of Brahmā and Indra requesting the Buddha to stop his silence after his enlightenment and teach, a student must request the buddhas and teachers to teach or turn the wheel of Dharma.

<h5>6. Requesting to Live Long</h5>
The Buddha is said to have extended his life after receiving the request to live longer. As the existence in samsara is marred with pain and suffering, the enlightened beings who have attained the power to transcend the ordinary cycle of rebirth are said to often choose to exit from worldly existence and enter nirvana. Thus, the buddhas and masters are requested to not enter the state of nirvana but to remain in the world for the benefit of sentient beings.

<h5>7. Dedication</h5>
Finally, one takes the merit accumulated from the six above-mentioned practices and all the other merit one has accumulated and dedicates that to the welfare of sentient beings. This is done with the following prayer: "May these virtuous actions help sentient beings reach the complete and perfect state of the Buddha."
The seven-limb prayer is often carried out by chanting the verses from ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions,"''<ref>See Rigpa Translations, trans., ''The King of Aspiration Prayers: Samantabhadra's "Aspiration to Good Actions"'' (''Zangchö Mönlam'') (Lotsawa House 1996), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/words-of-the-buddha/samantabhadra-aspiration-good-actions.</ref> which are taken from ''The Stem Array Sūtra'' from the Buddhāvataṃsaka collection. The verses from chapter 2 and 3 of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' are also used as a liturgy for conducting the seven-limb prayer.

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<div class="col-md-6">{{YouTube
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|caption=Venerable Thubten Chodron: <em>The Seven-Limb Prayer - Prostration. Click here for her entire series on the Seven-Limb Prayer.</em>
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<div class="col-md-6">{{SoundCloud
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|caption=Alexander Berzin: <em>The Seven-Limb Prayer by Śāntideva</em>
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<h4>Mind Training</h4>
Having accumulated the required resources of merit and having removed the obstacles through the seven-limb prayer, one then prepares the state of one's mind. Just as a field is tilled to prepare it for planting, one makes one's mind conducive and pliable for the cultivation of bodhicitta.

There is a wide range of practices for mind training before and after taking the bodhisattva vow. Here, Patrul Rinpoche adopts the earnest arousal of the ''four immeasurable thoughts'' to prepare the mindset. They are loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, which are cultivated through the following wishes respectively.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=May all sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness.
May all sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering.
May all sentient beings be never separated from sacred joy.
May all sentient beings be free from attachment, aversion, partiality and abide in great equanimity.
}}
Following the cultivation of these four immeasurable thoughts, one must also cultivate the strong resolve to forsake everything for the sake of all sentient beings. One can chant the following verse and verses 12–22 of chapter 3 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
{{PullBcaVerses|3.11}}

<h4>The Actual Taking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h4>
There are two sets of liturgies for the actual taking of the bodhisattva vow passed down from the two main Mahāyāna traditions. Today, the Profound View tradition mainly uses the verses from chapter 2 and 3 of Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', while the Vast Conduct tradition uses lines from Atiśa's ''Ritual Procedures for the Generation of the Mind and Vows'' (''Cittotpādasaṃvaravidhikrama'').<ref>See Atiśa Dīpaṃkaraśrījñāna, ''Cittotpādasaṃvaravidhikrama'' (''Sems bskyed pa dang sdom pa'i cho ga'i rim pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3969, dbu ma, vol.112, gi, fols. 245a2–248b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3969. For an English translation of the text (with Wylie), see Richard Sherburne, trans., ''The Complete Works of Atīśa, Śrī Dīpaṁkara Jñāna, jo-bo-rje: The Lamp for the Path and Commentary, Together with the Newly Translated Twenty-five Key Texts'' (New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2003), 536–51.</ref>

Although in some practices the ritual of taking refuge is added to the seven-limb prayer, making it an eight-limb prayer, as we find in the case of Śāntideva's and Atiśa's texts, most traditions have the verse for taking refuge chanted just before taking the bodhisattva vow. In this way, one takes the vow of refuge as well as the bodhisattva vow in one session.

In the Profound View tradition, the vows for both aspiring and engaged bodhicitta are taken in one session, while in the Vast Conduct tradition the two types of bodhisattva vows are taken separately. In the former tradition, the presence of a physical teacher is not essential, although that is preferred and highly recommended. In the latter tradition, as the second vow of engaged bodhicitta is taken mainly through a Q&A, there is a need for an officiant in person. The former also does not require a human birth as a precondition, and nonhuman beings such as gods and nāgas can get the bodhisattva vow. However, the Vast Conduct tradition argues that the bodhisattva vow must be based on general Buddhist ''prātimokṣa'' vows, which only a human can take.

<h5>Liturgy in the Profound View Tradition</h5>
In order to take the vows, one must first ask the buddhas, the bodhisattvas, and the great teachers to pay attention to the request, stating,
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=All buddhas, transcendent and accomplished conquerors, residing in the ten directions, bodhisattva great beings abiding on the ten levels (''bhūmi''s), and great guru vajra-holders, please consider me.<ref>''phyogs bcu na bzhugs pa'i sangs rgyas bcom ldan 'das thams cad dang''/ ''sa bcu la gnas pa'i byang chub sems dpa' sems dpa' chen po rnams dang''/ ''bla ma rdo rje 'dzin pa chen po rnams bdag la dgongs su gsol''/. For the Tibetan text, see Chatral Rinpoche, ''Byang sdoms blang chog dpal sprul gsung rgyun ltar bkod'', in Gsung 'bum, Bya bral sangs rgyas rdo rje (Taiwan: Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2017), 2: 215, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ354420. See also, Rigpa Translations, trans., "The Ritual for the Bodhisattva Vow: Arranged According to the Tradition of Patrul Rinpoche," by Chatral Rinpoche (Lotsawa House, 2008), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/tibetan-masters/chatral-rinpoche/bodhisattva-vow-patrul-tradition.</ref>
}}
With an exceptional motivation to save all sentient beings from suffering, one takes refuge in the exceptional objects, including the buddhas, their teachings, and the sangha community of enlightened bodhisattvas, for an exceptional duration—that is, until one reaches enlightenment. With such an attitude, one chants the following verse from the ''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' three times:
{{PullBcaVerses|2.26}}
This is followed by the verses to take the two types of bodhisattva vows: the vow of aspiring bodhicitta and that of engaged bodhicitta. The vow of aspiring bodhicitta is the pledge to attain the resultant buddhahood, while the vow of engaged bodhicitta is said to be the pledge to engage in the path leading to buddhahood. In the tradition coming down from Asaṅga, the vows for aspiring bodhicitta and engaged bodhicitta are taken separately and have different prerequisites. However, in Śāntideva's tradition presented here, vows for both are taken simultaneously. The following verses from chapter 3 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' are chanted three times, and one obtains vows for both aspiring and engaged bodhicitta at the end of the third recitation. At the end of the third recitation, one must mentally think one has received the vow.
{{PullBcaVerses|3.23}}
{{PullBcaVerses|3.24}}

<h5>Liturgy in the Vast Conduct Tradition</h5>
The Vast Conduct tradition has a different procedure and different liturgies for administering the aspiring and engaged bodhicitta vows separately. Below are the core parts of the liturgies which the officiant must read out three times and have the recipient of the vow repeat or respond to.

<h5>Core Liturgy for the Aspiring Bodhicitta</h5>
The officiant chants the following lines three times and has the recipient of the vow repeat after him or her.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=By means of whatever roots of virtue having the nature of generosity, morality, or meditation that I, who am named so-and-so, have performed in any of my various past lives, that I induced others to perform, or that I have rejoiced at when they were performed by others, just as the former tathāgatas, arhats, and true and complete buddhas, as well as the bodhisattvas who are great beings that reside on the great ārya bodhisattva stages, generated the mind that aspires to attain unsurpassed true and complete enlightenment, I, too, who am named so-and-so, from this moment on until I reach the seat of enlightenment, generate the mind that aspires to attain unsurpassed true and complete great enlightenment.

I shall deliver those who have not been delivered;
I shall liberate those who have not been liberated;
I shall provide relief to those who are without relief;
and I shall establish all beings who have not attained complete
nirvana in that state of complete nirvana.<ref>Artemus Engle, trans., ''Kadam: Stages of the Path, Mind Training, and Esoteric Practice, Part 1'', vol. 3 of The Treasury of Precious Instructions: Essential Teachings of the Eight Practice Lineages of Tibet, comp. Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Taye (Boulder, CO: Snow Lion, 2024), 462.</ref>
}}

<h5>Core Liturgy for the Engaged Bodhicitta</h5>
The liturgy for taking the engaged bodhicitta vow in the Vast Conduct tradition contains many questions and answers in order to prepare and confirm the conviction of the practitioner before taking the actual vow. The following lines are only the core and final part of the recitation which the officiant must say three times and the recipient of the vow must respond to affirmatively.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Then, the spiritual teacher should ask:

O son or daughter of good family who is named so-and-so, do you accept from me, a spiritual teacher and bodhisattva who is named so-and-so, all of the bodhisattva precepts and all of the bodhisattva morality—namely, the morality of restraint, the morality of acquiring virtuous qualities, and the morality of acting on behalf of sentient beings—those precepts and that morality that have been observed by all the bodhisattvas of the past, those precepts and that morality that shall be observed by all the bodhisattvas of the future, and those precepts and that morality that currently are being observed by all the bodhisattvas of the present throughout the ten directions, those precepts and that morality with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the past have trained themselves, with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the future shall train themselves, and with regard to which all the bodhisattvas of the present are training themselves?

The disciples should receive the vow by answering:

I do accept all of them.<ref>Engle, ''Kadam'', 483.</ref>
}}

<h4>Concluding Procedures</h4>

<h5>Rejoicing Oneself</h5>
Having received the bodhisattva vows, one rejoices in the achievement, reflecting on how one has made human birth meaningful and how one has been reborn in the family of buddhas. One thinks, it is astounding if a blind man scavenging in a heap of rubbish finds the most precious jewel; It is equally astounding for an ordinary person blind with ignorance to find the thought of awakening, which is the jewel of the mind, in the midst of one's afflictive emotions and thoughts.

<h5>Asking Others to Rejoice</h5>
One then chants the verse, asking all other beings to also rejoice in this achievement. With the buddhas as witnesses, one invites all beings as guests to the great offering of the ultimate state of the Buddha and all other kinds of happiness in the interim. The ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow is concluded with prayers for bodhicitta to grow and flourish and for the fulfillment of one's bodhisattva aspiration and project. (link to the verse).

<h5>Making Offerings in Gratitude</h5>
The ritual of taking the bodhisattva vow, especially if it is done for the first time in the presence of a master, would also include the offering of gifts as a token of gratitude. Such an act of offering is undertaken at the end of almost all important sessions of receiving teachings or vows and may involve cash or other gift items. The ceremony of taking the vow will normally end with verses for the dedication of merit like any other Mahāyāna session.

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<h2>Protecting Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Precepts</h2>

<h3>The Discipline of Abstaining from Misdeeds</h3>
The practice of bodhisattva moral discipline after taking the bodhisattva vow is often presented in three categories.
# The discipline of abstaining from misdeeds
# The discipline of gathering virtue
# The discipline of working for the welfare of sentient beings

The discipline of abstaining from misdeeds includes the moral precepts a bodhisattva must follow and the major and minor transgressions, known as downfalls in the Buddhist vocabulary. These are listed below. The second and third discipline concern things a bodhisattva should do and will be covered in subsequent sections.

<h4>Precepts for Aspiring Bodhicitta</h4>
One must avoid the four dark dharmas and follow the four white dharmas taught in ''The Jewel Heap Sūtra'' (''Ratnakūṭasūtra'').

Don'ts
#Cheat the venerable ones, including teachers
#Make someone with no regret regret a good deed
#Defame a noble being such as a bodhisattva
#Deceive sentient beings

Dos
#Tell no lies knowingly
#Treat sentient beings with benevolence
#Respect and praise a bodhisattva
#Place beings on the path to perfect buddhahood

<h4>Precepts for Engaged Bodhicitta in the Profound View Tradition: Eighteen Root Downfalls</h4>
One must avoid the eighteen root downfalls (transgressions or misdeeds) according to ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' (''Ākāśagarbhasūtra''), which Śāntideva cites in ''The Compendium of Training'' and refers to in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.

<h5>Five Downfalls a King Is Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Take away property from the Three Jewels and stūpas
# Discard the holy Dharma of any vehicle
# Persecute someone in monastic robes, whether a monk or a transgressor
# Commit one of the five actions of immeasurable consequences
# Take up wrong views and nonvirtuous practices and make others do so

<h5>Five Downfalls a Minister Is Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Destroy a village
# Destroy a region
# Destroy a town
# Destroy a city
# Destroy a country

<h5>Eight Downfalls Common People Are Prone to Commit:</h5>
# Teach emptiness to someone who is not ready and make the person turn away from Mahāyāna
# Dissuade someone from the Mahāyāna path so that the person seeks individual liberation
# Dissuade someone from monastic and vinaya discipline saying it is better to train on the Mahāyāna path
# Deny that the path of disciples leads to the end of desire, etc. and convince someone
# Praise oneself and disparage others out of jealousy
# Sell oneself with lies of seeing the truth for the sake of wealth and veneration
# Get a monk punished and accept bribes regarding such an act
# Obstruct meditation by diverting provisions for practitioners to those doing recitation

<h4>Precepts for Engaged Bodhicitta in the Vast Conduct Tradition: Four Root Downfalls</h4>

Asaṅga summarizes the root downfalls taught in different sūtras into four in his ''Stages of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhisattvabhūmi'').
#Praise oneself and criticize others out of attachment for wealth and veneration
#Not give wealth or Dharma to others out of stinginess
#Not accept an apology and hurt others out of anger
#Abandon Mahāyāna and teach fake dharma as true Dharma

<h4>Precepts for Both Aspiring and Engaged Bodhicitta</h4>
#Not forsake any sentient being or give up on helping someone and seek individual liberation
#Not engage in altruistic work or help, even if one is in a position to help

<h4>Minor Downfalls</h4>
Minor downfalls include various physical, verbal, and mental actions one must avoid as taught in chapter 5 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Compendium of Training'', and many sūtras. They include bodily comportments, such as unbecoming behavior, nonvirtuous forms of speech, such as idle gossip and harsh words, and negative thoughts and emotions. Commentators on ''The Compendium of Training'' enumerate eighty minor downfalls, while Candragomin's ''Vows in Twenty Verses'' (''Bodhisattvasaṃvaraviṃśaka'') mentions forty-six minor downfalls. The following passage from ''The Compendium of Training'' summarizes the complex moral system and downfalls of bodhisattva practice.
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=In order to pacify the suffering and mental pain of all sentient beings in the present and in the future, and to generate happiness and mental pleasure of all sentient beings in the present and in the future, if a bodhisattva does not diligently engage body, speech, and mind without wavering, does not seek the conditions for them, does not work on remedying what obstructs them, does not take up the small suffering and mental pain which can overcome great suffering and mental pain, does not forsake small things for achieving greater things, and neglects doing so even for a moment, he/she commits a downfall. There is no downfall for not taking up what is beyond one's capacity, as there is no rule made for that in reality. In other cases [i.e., where one is capable], it is either a misdeed by nature or by restriction.<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fols. 11a6-11b2, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940.</ref>
}}
Śāntideva points out that some actions may appear like a downfall, called images of downfalls, but they are not downfalls. Such actions might include telling a white lie to save a life. These actions are permitted. But some actions may appear to be without a downfall, called images of non-downfalls, while being a downfall in reality. Such actions would include those which externally appear virtuous but are done with selfish intentions or actions that involve trying to do things which are beyond one's capacity.

<h4>Making Amends</h4>
Transgressing a bodhisattva vow is considered a serious offense, as such a person loses his or her moral integrity, fails to keep one's status, displeases the buddhas, lets down sentient beings whom one has promised to save, and could be reborn in unhappy realms. Thus, one must make amends through confession within six hours, or one-sixth of a day. Applying the four powers for confession mentioned earlier, a bodhisattva who has committed a downfall must make confessions and amendments. Śāntideva recommends that a bodhisattva who has committed a downfall must confess by chanting ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps'' three times during day and three times during the night.<ref>See ''Triskhandhakasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa phung po gsum pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo'') D284, mdo sde, vol. 68, ya, 57a3–77a3, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW4CZ5369_0284. For an English translation, see Stefan Mang and Peter Woods (Samye Translations), trans., "The Bodhisattva's Confession of Downfalls" (Lotsawa House, 2020), https://www.lotsawahouse.org/words-of-the-buddha/confession-of-downfalls-nyingma.</ref>

Śāntideva also cites ''The Sūtra of Ākāśagarbha'' and advises that a bodhisattva who has committed downfalls can confess to Ākāśagarbha, who will appear in a dream in some form to help one make amends by giving instructions. The bodhisattva must make the following supplication to Ākāśagarbha before twilight and sleep again:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Dawn! Dawn! O Compassionate and Fortunate One! As soon as you shine on the world, cover me with compassion. I also entreat Ākāśagarbha, the compassionate one, to show me the means by which I can confess the downfalls and the means by which I can attain the wisdom and skillful means of the sublime Mahāyāna.<ref>Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccaya'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3940, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fol. 42a6-42b1, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3940. For the passage in the ''Ākāśagarbhasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa nam mkha'i snying po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), see Derge Kangyur D260, mdo sde, vol. 66, za, fol. 275.b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0260.</ref>
}}

<h3>The Discipline of Gathering Virtue</h3>
The discipline of gathering virtue refers to the bodhisattva practice of the six perfections, including giving, discipline, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom. How a practitioner takes up the practice of these six perfections will be explained below under the practice of engaged bodhicitta. It may be noted here, however, that through the six perfections, a bodhisattva gathers what is known as the ''two accumulations'': the accumulation of merit (''puṇyasambhāra'', བསོད་ནམས་ཀྱི་ཚོགས་) and the accumulation of pristine wisdom (''jñānasambhāra'', ཡེ་ཤེས་ཀྱི་ཚོགས་). The practice of the first five perfections falls under the first accumulation, and the sixth perfection comprises the second accumulation. A bodhisattva must complete these two accumulations or the six perfections (ཕར་ཕྱིན་དྲུག་རྫོགས་) in order to reach full buddhahood. In addition, a bodhisattva must also help mature or prepare the minds of his or her future disciples (གདུལ་བྱའི་རྒྱུད་སྨིན་) and cultivate the kind of realm or world he or she will attain (ཞིང་སྦྱོང་བ་). The latter two are undertaken through the various prayers a bodhisattva should make.

<h3>The Discipline of Benefitting Sentient Beings</h3>
The discipline of benefiting sentient beings is normally presented through the four means of attraction. While the discipline of abstaining from misdeeds and the discipline of gathering virtue helps a practitioner in self-development, the discipline of benefiting sentient beings helps the practitioner engage in altruistic activities for others. The four means of attraction are a skillful strategy with which a bodhisattva can benefit the world.

<h4>Gift Giving</h4>
A practitioner of the bodhisattva path should first give material gifts or Dharma teachings to attract potential beneficiaries. Most sentient beings appreciate gifts, and this helps attract their attention.

<h4>Sweet Words</h4>
Having attracted sentient beings through giving, the bodhisattva speaks to the audience with soft and persuasive speech to make them enter the right path. Thus, material gifts are followed by sweet talk.

<h4>Purposeful Practice</h4>
With knowledge of the wide spectrum of paths to enlightenment, the bodhisattva then teaches a path which is suitable and most effective to the audience. It is important to impart teachings which are appropriate to the capacity, disposition, and interest of the audience.

<h4>Consistent Engagement</h4>
While teaching the appropriate path to the audience, it is important for the bodhisattva to also lead by example. Thus, a practitioner of bodhisattva discipline must walk the talk and engage in the appropriate practice himself or herself.

<h3>The Four Bodhisattva Actions</h3>
Śāntideva's ''Compendium of Training'', which is an anthology of passages from the Mahāyāna sūtras on the training and practice of bodhisattvas, summarizes the training of bodhisattvas under the four actions of giving, protection, purification, and expansion of the three objects, including body, possessions, and virtues of the past, present, and future times. This is presented in a verse in ''The Compendium of Training'' as the crux of the matter to avoid any transgressions on the bodhisattva path:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=The vows of a bodhisattva
Are taught in detail in the Mahāyāna sūtras.
Know these to be the essential points,
By which one can avoid transgressions. (3)
}}

{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=One's body and possessions
And the virtues accrued in the three times,
Giving them to all sentient beings
Protecting, purifying, and expanding them. (4)<ref>For the verses in Tibetan, see Śāntideva, ''Śikṣāsamuccayakārikā'' (''Bslab pa kun las btus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa''), in Derge Tengyur D3939, dbu ma, vol. 111, khi, fol. 1b , http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3939.</ref>
}}
Śāntideva presents the four actions as a way for the practitioner engaged in the bodhisattva training to avoid moral transgressions and to make progress on the path. It is important for the practitioner to practice giving in the form of charity, teaching, and company. One must particularly dedicate and give one's body, possessions, and virtues to all sentient beings. Only by giving up attachment to these three objects of ordinary attachment and using these three objects for the benefit of the world can a person truly make progress on the bodhisattva path.

In order to have them available for sentient beings, a practitioner must protect these objects. One must not waste, squander, or neglect these objects, which can be of great benefit to the world. A practitioner's sense of giving and protecting these objects should not be stained by selfish interests and other negative emotions but be pure and wholesome. Thus, a bodhisattva must purify one's thoughts, speech, and actions and make available the three objects of body, possessions, and virtues to sentient beings in a pure form, in both thought and deed. If the benefit of the three objects of body, possessions, and virtues are not multiplied or expanded, there cannot be a great impact which is appropriate for the vast world of sentient beings. Thus, a practitioner must expand and scale up the impact of giving one's body, possessions, and virtues so that sentient beings gain optimal benefit. Such expansion and amplification is carried out through practices such as visualization and dedication.

<h2>Enhancing Bodhicitta: The Bodhisattva Practices</h2>

<h3>Enhancing Aspiring Bodhicitta</h3>

The ritual for taking the bodhisattva vow only starts the process of training in the Mahāyāna path for a new practitioner. Such an initial cultivation of bodhicitta must be followed by persistent practice to sustain and strengthen it, and there are many ways of nurturing the altruistic mind and cultivating bodhicitta. In the Profound View tradition, the practice of the equality between self and others and the exchange between self and others, as presented by Śāntideva in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', feature as the main practice. In the Vast Conduct tradition, the contemplation on the seven points of cause and effect, passed down from Asaṅga via Atiśa, is the most well-known practice. The meditation on the four immeasurable thoughts of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity is another method to cultivate the aspiring bodhicitta.

In carrying out these practices, an important point is to treat all sentient beings with equanimity, without any discrimination and partiality. To do so, in most Tibetan Buddhist traditions, a practitioner is instructed to visualize one's mother alongside a person whom one hates or whom one may consider as an enemy. In some traditions, one is encouraged to visualize one's mother as the center figure surrounded by other loved ones and all other sentient beings, including one's enemies. The figure of the mother is used because the mother is generally considered to be the person who loves one the most and toward whom one normally has a strong affection.

In order to cultivate a strong sense of equanimity, some masters use the concept of rebirth. As one has taken innumerable rebirths in the past in this cycle of existence, all beings have become one's mother, not just once or twice but countless times. While they were mothers, they have been as kind and loving as one's present mother. Thus, all sentient beings are treated equally as recipients of one's love and compassion. It is with such a sense of impartiality that one must practice the different methods of strengthening the aspiring bodhicitta.
<span id="The_Equality_between_Self_and_Others" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>The Equality between Self and Others</h4>
The practice of equality between self and others is carried out through the following series of contemplative thoughts and arguments.

<h5>Equal in Desiring Happiness</h5>
All sentient beings equally desire happiness. There is no difference between myself and others in wanting happiness, although we may differ in how we seek such happiness. Therefore, there is no reason why I should only seek my own happiness and not that of others. Śāntideva states:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.95}}
It is irrational and irresponsible that I seek only my happiness when both I and all other sentient beings equally desire happiness. Thus, I must seek happiness for others because they are sentient beings, just like my own body. As Śāntideva has said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=And others I will aid and benefit,
For they are living beings, like my body. (8.94)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 122.</ref>
}}

<h5>Equal in Disliking Suffering</h5>
All sentient beings equally dislike suffering. There is no difference between myself and others in not wanting pain and suffering. Therefore, there is no reason why I should only eliminate my own suffering and not that of others. Śāntideva states:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.96}}
It is irrational and irresponsible that I seek to eliminate only my own suffering when both I and all other sentient beings equally dislike suffering. Thus, I must eliminate the suffering of others because they are suffering, just like my own pain. As Śāntideva has said:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=And therefore I'll dispel the pain of others,
For it is simply pain, just like my own. 8.94<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 122.</ref>
}}

<h5>Equal in Being Part of One Whole</h5>
If it is argued that I and others are different and therefore I need not seek the happiness of others and eliminate the suffering of others, such distinction is imaginary and subjective. The hands and feet are different parts of the body, but they can be seen as being parts of the same body. The hand helps to scratch when the foot is itching. In the same way, all sentient beings are parts of the living world as a whole, and I ought to look after other sentient beings. Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.114}}

<h5>Equal in Not Having "Self" or an Owner of Experience</h5>
Moreover, if there were a true self or owner of the experience of happiness or suffering, one could make such a distinction and discriminate. However, there is no such self who owns the experience to be found if I critically examine the mind-body composition. All beings are merely an assembly of many psychosomatic constituents, and our experiences are the same. There is no difference in the experiences and no real person or being to distinguish us as different individuals. Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.102}}

<h5>Equal in Being Able to Cherish Others</h5>
If it is thought that I cannot love strangers and unrelated sentient beings just as I love myself or those related to me, such a thought is mistaken. Sentient beings can easily love others with a change of mindset and habituation. If I buy a dog from a shelter and adopt it as a pet, from the moment I take it under my care, I would cherish and love it, although it was unknown to me before such a time. It is a matter of opening one's heart to cherish sentient beings. Even the love for one's body has come about as a result of one's mental attitude and habituation, just as Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.115}}

<h5>Equalize Thinking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h5>
A practitioner must regularly remember the bodhisattva vow one has taken and remind oneself of one's commitment to rescue all sentient beings from suffering. One should think: "I am a responsible person and a person of integrity. I must not break my promise or falter from the pledge which I have taken in the presence of all buddhas and sentient beings." All beings were given assurance that I will help them and save them from suffering. If I were to give up the promise, let down the buddhas, and deceive sentient beings, what will be my future?" With such thoughts, a practitioner endeavors to equally benefit other sentient beings as oneself and strives to equally dispel the suffering of others as one's own suffering. To this effect, Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|4.4}}
<span id="The_Exchange_between_Self_and_Others" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>The Exchange between Self and Others</h4>
The next step after the practice of equalizing oneself and others is the practice of exchange between self and others. In ordinary life and the world, one is used to cherishing oneself (བདག་གཅེས་འཛིན་), but on the bodhisattva path, one must cherish others (གཞན་གཅེས་འཛིན་). In actualizing bodhicitta, love and compassion for others takes priority over love for oneself. Altruism overrides self-centricity. One must, therefore, switch from cherishing and loving oneself to cherishing and loving others. In order to exchange between self and others as the object of love and affection, one must contemplate the virtues, advantages, and appropriateness of cherishing others and the vices, disadvantages, and inappropriateness of cherishing oneself.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Value of Actions</h5>
Self-love is at worst evil and at best ordinary, whereas altruistic love is noble and sublime. Taking the case of giving, Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.125}}
Ethically speaking, an altruistic action has high positive value, whereas a selfish action is negative and deplorable, even by worldly standards. Thus, considering the ethical value of altruistic actions, one must cherish others instead of cherishing oneself.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Result of Actions</h5>
Following the law of cause and effect, a selfish action is negative and therefore leads to undesirable results, whereas an altruistic action is a highly positive action which results in desirable outcomes. Śāntideva writes:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.126}}
{{PullBcaVerses|8.129}}
In order to avoid pain and suffering and to instead experience pleasure and happiness, it is important to stop cherishing oneself and to cherish others and engage in altruistic actions.

<h5>Exchange to Follow Great Beings</h5>
When one looks at the history of the world, all great beings, including the Buddha and other sublime Mahāyāna masters, have become great by cherishing others. Ordinary beings remain stuck in lowly life because they only cherish themselves. Śāntideva remarks:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.130}}
In order to emulate the great beings and, in particular, follow the Buddha on the path to enlightenment, it is essential to cherish others and to engage in altruistic actions. Cherishing oneself is giving in to the ordinary habit of the childish.

<h5>Exchange Considering the Number and Significance</h5>
Moreover, it is important to cherish others over oneself because the world of sentient beings is far greater in number and significance than oneself or a small group of one's loved ones. A wise person works for the vast majority and the greater good of society at large instead of a single person or family. The impact of working for others will be manifold compared to the result of working for just oneself. Thus, Śāntideva exhorts:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.139}}

<h5>Exchange Thinking of the Bodhisattva Vow</h5>
A practitioner recollects the bodhisattva vow he or she has taken to serve all sentient beings. In order to live up to one's pledge and act according to the oath taken in the presence of the buddhas and sentient beings, the practitioner reinforces the commitment to work for all sentient beings and to cherish others over and above oneself. As Śāntideva has said:
{{PullBcaVerses|4.4}}
Using different arguments and justifications, one must exchange oneself and others and swap cherishing oneself with cherishing others. One must know that if one does not do so, there is no benefit in the long term in cherishing oneself. Śāntideva has this reminder:
{{PullBcaVerses|8.131}}
{{PullBcaVerses|8.136}}
<span id="Tonglen_-_The_Practice_of_Exchange" style="scroll-margin-top: 100px; display: block;"></span>
<h4>Tonglen - The Practice of Exchange</h4>
In Tibet, the practice of exchange between self and others is taken up commonly as ''tonglen'', or giving and taking. In this practice, one takes the suffering and problems of other sentient beings onto oneself and gives to them one's own happiness and resources.

One would mentally place one's mother and all sentient beings in front of oneself and, out of an intense feeling of gratitude and affection, imagine giving one's body, possessions, and virtues to them. As one does this, one can visualize a white, soothing, blissful substance, like warm milk or soft wool, which is in essence joy and happiness, flowing out of oneself to others. As the soothing substance envelopes others and fills these beings, the area, the world, and, gradually, the entire universe, one imagines that the beings are filled with joy and bliss. Then, one visualizes a dark, foul substance, like dirty smoke, which is in essence suffering and the problems of the world, flowing from others into one's own being. As it enters one's body, one imagines that all the problems and miseries of others are taken in by oneself. Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim wrote the following to this effect:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=May my body, possessions, and stock of virtues
All bear fruit for every sentient being.
May all diverse emotions and wrongdoing of the world
Fall upon me and may they be well.<ref>Karma Phuntsho, ''The Life and Works of Kyotön Monlam Tsultrim'' (Thimphu: Loden Foundation, 2023), 59.</ref>
}}
This practice of ''tonglen'', which is highlighted in the ''lojong'', or mind training, tradition of the Kadam school, is also combined with breathing exercises. In such practice, as one exhales, one visualizes soft, milky, blissful clouds of happiness and joy issuing forth from one's body and filling the target beneficiaries, the world, and the universe with the white soothing substance, which is bliss and happiness. As one inhales, one visualizes a dark, foul substance, which is suffering and the problems of other beings, pouring into oneself and thereby freeing all other sentient beings from sufferings and problems.

As it can be challenging to imagine taking in all the problems and suffering of the world for an ordinary practitioner, some traditions add an extra step of visualization. As the negative energy and suffering of the entire world is absorbed in the form of a dark, putrid substance during inhalation, one visualizes in the center of one's heart a powerful and radiant vajra or ball of light which transmutes the negative energy and suffering into positive energy and sublime bliss. One then imagines, as one exhales, that this positive energy and bliss in the form of soothing white light is sent out to cover all sentient beings and fill the entire universe.

<h4>Seven-Point Instructions of Cause and Effect</h4>
One of the most popular contemplative practices to enhance the aspiring bodhicitta and strengthen the bodhisattva's willpower is the seven-point instructions of cause and effect coming down from Atiśa through the Kadam tradition. Unlike Śāntideva's instructions, which use rational arguments, the seven-point instructions use the concept of reincarnation and the belief in innumerable rebirths one has taken in the past. Starting with the belief that all sentient beings have become one's mother, the instructions proceed from one point to another in the form of the preceding point being a cause leading to the subsequent one as the result. Thus, it is known as the seven-point instructions of cause and effect.

<h5>1. Seeing All Beings as Your Mother</h5>
The first point of meditation is to recognize all sentient beings as having been one's mother. One meditates on the point that in the course of the countless rebirths one has taken in this cycle of existence, all sentient beings have become one's mother, not just once or twice but innumerable times. Nāgārjuna states hypothetically that if one made balls of earth as big as Indian cypress seeds, the number of times a sentient being has become one's mother would exceed the number of balls one can make using the entire earth. Using the belief in the cycle of rebirth, one must generate the strong belief that all sentient beings have become one's mother.

<h5>2. Remembering the Kindness of the Mother</h5>
When they were our mothers, sentient beings showed us great love and affection. From carrying us in their wombs for nine months with much love and care, giving the best food, keeping us warm, and protecting us from harm, to helping us to grow up and succeed in life, they have shown unrelenting and unconditional love and kindness. They would have preferred to die rather than see us get even mildly sick. One should think of the absolute kindness with which the mother sentient beings have taken care of us in past lifetimes and how much one owes to them for their kindness.

<h5>3. Wishing to Repay the Kindness</h5>
Being acutely aware of their kindness, one must not only remember their kindness but act to repay the kindness. One must think: "Today, I am a capable and responsible human being. I should not merely feel the kindness of the mother sentient beings and be grateful but do something meaningful to show them gratitude and return their kindness." As a conscientious person, it is important to reciprocate the kindness others have shown to us. In this manner, one cultivates a strong compulsion to do something to reciprocate the love and kindness of the mother sentient beings.

<h5>4. Love</h5>
One wonders what would be the best way to reciprocate the kindness of the mother sentient beings. All sentient beings like happiness. Thus, it would be appropriate to show gratitude and return their kindness by helping them attain happiness. In order to attain happiness, one must have the causes and conditions for happiness. Therefore, one should seek happiness and the causes of happiness for all kind mother sentient beings in order to repay their kindness. As such, one makes the aspiration: "May all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness."

<h5>5. Compassion</h5>
In order to genuinely enjoy happiness, one must get rid of pain and suffering, and to do so, one must eliminate the causes of suffering. Therefore, one should seek to eliminate suffering and the causes of suffering so that the mother sentient beings can enjoy happiness. One makes the aspiration: "May all kind mother sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering."

<h5>6. Special Intention</h5>
Merely wishing that mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and be free from suffering and the causes of suffering is not enough. In order for them to realize this, one must take up the responsibility to help them do so and act with a strong resolve and determination. Thus, one should think: "Come what may, I shall personally strive to make all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and free them from suffering and the causes of suffering."

<h5>7. Generating the Mind of Enlightenment</h5>
Having developed such an unwavering resolve to make all kind mother sentient beings attain happiness and the causes of happiness and free them from suffering and the causes of suffering, one seeks the most effective way to do so. What would be a viable and sustainable state to place all kind mother sentient beings in so that they can enjoy genuine happiness and be free from suffering? There is no genuine and lasting happiness and permanent freedom from suffering in this cycle of existence. All levels of existence in samsara are marred by dissatisfaction and eventually end up in suffering. Thus, there is no place or state of existence in samsara that is a viable permanent solution. Even if one attains the personal nirvana of individual liberation as an enlightened saint, there is no genuine happiness in an individualistic state of nirvana when the rest of the world around oneself is plunged in the sea of suffering. How can one enjoy full happiness by turning a blind eye to the suffering around oneself? Besides, even the enlightened saints, who are yet to become fully enlightened buddhas, are not free from the pain of subtle ignorance and the process of becoming. Thus, the only state with genuine and lasting happiness is the state of the fully enlightened buddha, who is not only free from all suffering and enjoying supreme bliss but also brimming with joy in helping sentient beings.

Thus, one should have the resolve: "In order to repay the immense kindness of my kind mother sentient beings, to help them attain genuine and lasting happiness and the causes of happiness, and to free them from suffering and the causes of suffering, I shall by myself and by any means place all kind mother sentient beings in the state of the unsurpassed, perfect, and fully enlightened Buddha." This seventh and final point is bodhicitta.

<span id="Four_Immeasurable_Thoughts" style="display: block; scroll-margin-top: 100px;"></span>
<h4>Four Immeasurable Thoughts</h4>
The four immeasurable thoughts are loving kindness (''maitrī'', བྱམས་པ་), compassion (''karuṇa'', སྙིང་རྗེ་), sympathetic joy (''muditā'', དགའ་བ་), and equanimity (''upekṣā'', བཏང་སྙོམས་). Concepts which perhaps predate Buddhism, they form one of the most common sets of practices of love and goodwill in all schools of Buddhism. However, they play a very important role as techniques to express compassion and enhance altruism.

Loving-kindness refers to the wish to bring happiness and the causes of happiness to all sentient beings. Compassion refers to the wish to free all sentient beings from suffering and the causes of suffering. Sympathetic joy is the thought of rejoicing in the happiness of sentient beings and wishing they be never separated from it. And equanimity, as it is understood in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, is the attitude to treat all sentient beings with total impartiality, with no sense of discrimination, attachment, or aversion.

Like the practices above, it is considered important in the Mahāyāna system to develop equanimity as the first of the four immeasurable thoughts. Thus, one may start the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts by visualizing one's mother and one's enemy on equal terms in front of oneself, surrounded by other sentient beings. Only meditation with such a sense of equanimity becomes a truly Mahāyāna practice. Having one's parents, enemies, relatives, friends, colleagues, and the entire world of sentient beings as one's object of meditation, one can then cultivate the four immeasurable thoughts. There are many different ways of practicing the four immeasurable thoughts in the different Buddhist traditions. The cultivation of the four immeasurable thoughts through four modes according to the tradition passed down from Patrul Rinpoche is given below.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as an Aspiration</h5>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the cause of happiness.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, never be separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*May all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in boundless equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Wish</h5>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attained happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, became free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, were never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*How wonderful it would be if all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abided in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Pledge</h5>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, become free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*I shall make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts as a Supplication</h5>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, attain happiness and the causes of happiness.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, become free from suffering and the causes of suffering.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, be never separated from sublime joy devoid of suffering.<br>
*I pray to the enlightened beings to help me make all mother sentient beings, as vast as space, abide in great equanimity without partiality, attachment, and aversion.

<h5>Three Levels of Cultivating the Four Immeasurable Thoughts</h5>
In the Mahāyāna system, there are three different levels of contemplating the four immeasurable thoughts.
#The first level is to contemplate as mentioned above, with the conventional knowledge that sentient beings exist and need to be freed from suffering and placed in the state of happiness. Because one assumes sentient beings to exist and practices loving-kindness, etc. for sentient beings, this type of practice is known as loving-kindness focused on sentient beings (སེམས་ཅན་དམིགས་པ་).
#On the next, higher level of the practice of the four immeasurable thoughts, one can practice loving-kindness, etc. with the awareness of the impermanent and transient nature of sentient beings. Impermanence and change are the true nature of conditioned life. Thus, the practice of loving-kindness, etc. with an awareness of impermanence is known as loving-kindness, etc. focused on the truth (ཆོས་ལ་དམིགས་པ་).
#On the highest level of ontological scrutiny and the nature of existence, there is no sentient being, no person practicing the four immeasurable thoughts, and no act of loving-kindness, etc. Everything is empty of true existence and is merely an illusory appearance. Thus, there is no object to apprehend; there is no focus or fixation on anything. The practice of loving-kindness without the sense of grasping and apprehension of anything is known as loving-kindness without apprehension (དམིགས་པ་མེད་པ་). A bodhisattva must eventually cultivate the four immeasurable thoughts in this manner—without grasping, attachment, and fixation.

<h4>Compassion</h4>
A simple but powerful way to cultivate bodhicitta is to develop the feeling of compassion. As compassion is seen as the immediate cause of bodhicitta, many sūtras and commentarial treatises underscore the practice of compassion in order to cultivate genuine bodhicitta. Masters such as Candrakīrti and Kamalaśīla highlight the vital role of great compassion in generating bodhicitta and practicing the Mahāyāna path. Right at the beginning of his famous treatise ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''), Candrakīrti praises compassion by describing it as a process of cultivation, comparing it to a seed in the beginning, to water in the middle, and to a ripened harvest at the end.<ref>See Candrakīrti, ''Madhyamakāvatāra'' (''Dbu ma la 'jug pa zhes bya ba''), in Derge Tengyur D3861, dbu ma, vol. 102, 'a, fol. 201b , http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW23703_3861.</ref> Thus, according to Candrakīrti, compassion plays a fundamental role throughout the Mahāyāna process of enlightenment. Similarly, in the first chapter of his ''Stages of Meditation'' (''Bhāvanākrama''), Kamalaśīla cites many sūtras to show how great compassion plays a central role in Mahāyāna practice. He then goes on to show how one can generate compassion by meditating on the suffering of sentient beings.

One must think of the myriad kinds of suffering sentient beings go through, from the unbearable cold and heat in the hell realms, the torment of hunger and thirst among hungry ghosts, and the exploitation, fear, torture, and killing that animals, insects, fish, and birds go through. Even as humans, beings suffer from poverty, subjugation, persecution, illness, death, separation from loved ones, and meeting with those who are unpleasant. One must meditate on the countless forms of pain and suffering sentient beings undergo and then wish all sentient beings to be free from such suffering. Repeatedly thinking of the suffering of sentient beings and intensely wishing all sentient beings to be totally free from such suffering leads to the quick and easy generation of bodhicitta.

Initially, one can generate such a wish for one's loved ones and then extend it to strangers and eventually to those one dislikes. Reflection on how one has taken countless rebirths in this cycle of existence and how all sentient beings have become one's mother and relatives may be carried out to help develop equanimity and generate intense compassion toward all sentient beings without bias and partiality.

Being an integral part of bodhicitta, compassion is seen as the quintessence of all spiritual practice. To this effect, Avalokiteśvara states in ''The Dharma Council Sūtra'' (''Dharmasaṃgītisūtra''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Blessed One! A bodhisattva need not train in numerous dharmas. If a bodhisattva understands and upholds one dharma, all dharmas of the Buddha will be on the palm of his hand. What is that one dharma? It is great compassion.<ref>''Dharmasaṃgītisūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos yang dag par sdud pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), Derge Kangyur D238, mdo sde, vol. 65, zha, fol. 84b, http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW30532_0238.</ref>
}}

<h3>Enhancing Engaged Bodhicitta</h3>
The practice of engaged or active bodhicitta covers the entire range of the Mahāyāna paths and practices that a bodhisattva must follow and adopt. The Mahāyāna paths and innumerable practices are commonly captured in the set of six perfections that a bodhisattva must master in order to reach the state of a fully enlightened buddha.

<h4>The Practice of the Six Perfections</h4>
The six perfections in Mahāyāna Buddhism are giving, discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom. They are said to cover all aspects of bodhisattva practice and are arranged in a sequence of their importance and depth, with the latter being more important and deeper than the former.

<h5>Giving (''dāna'', སྦྱིན་པ་)</h5>
The practice of giving or generosity is defined by the inner sense of giving rather than by the quantity or value of the material given. Śāntideva writes in the fifth chapter of ''The Way of Bodhisattva'':
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Giving helps a practitioner overcome the negative trait of stinginess and attachment to things. If one has a strong attachment to things and is not able to give anything to others, a beginner could start by giving something from one hand to the other in order to get used to the act of giving. A student can train in giving by giving things of little value or by giving to people who are close. Gradually, a practitioner can give things of higher value, giving even to strangers and enemies. A bodhisattva develops the sense of giving gradually and tests his or her willpower and mental ability to give without expecting anything in return or any reward. A bodhisattva is not allowed to give anything he or she is not capable of giving wholeheartedly. When a bodhisattva has developed a strong sense of giving, he or she can give away even parts of the body with no attachment or regret. A bodhisattva with a highly advanced sense of giving will experience joy and bliss in giving away even parts of his or her own body. Thus, it is important to cultivate the inner sense of giving.

The will to give is often cultivated in the beginning by explaining the karmic benefit of giving. Giving leads to wealth and prosperity in the future. Thus, people are often encouraged to give with the belief of getting rich in the future. However, a bodhisattva's giving must transcend such worldly practice. Eventually, a bodhisattva must give without any expectation of return in this life or reward in the form of karmic results in future lifetimes. Stories of the Buddha and other masters are also frequently told to inspire giving. The Buddha is said to have given his body to a hungry tigress as Prince Mahāsattva and to flesh eating demons as King Maitrībala.
He is said to have given all the riches of his kingdom, his wife, children, and eyes to beggars as Prince Viśvantara. These and many other inspirational stories are used to help practitioners develop the sense of giving.

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|image=Hungry Tigress HAR.png
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The Mahāyāna tradition presents three types of giving:
#Giving material goods
#Giving protection
#Giving Dharma

One can give material gifts to one's teachers, parents, beggars, mendicants, and other recipients. Śāntideva's ''Compendium of Training'' mentions how a monk must practice giving by sharing a portion of one's alms with other beings. ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' presents giving mostly in the context of making offerings to the enlightened beings as part of the seven-limb prayer and the dedication of one's body, possessions, and virtues to the welfare of all sentient beings. Making offerings, either through the actual giving of things or through visualization, is a very common practice of giving material gifts and services. Even if one does not have anything to give or cannot afford to do so, one can practice giving by imagining giving one's body, possessions, virtues, and other pleasant things in existence.

Giving protection includes saving life, giving company, and defending the weak. Rescuing animals from the butcher, saving fish from being killed, and freeing caged birds are some common examples of giving protection which Tibetan Buddhists practice regularly. The giving of Dharma or sharing knowledge and showing the truth is considered to be the highest form of giving, as it can bring lasting results leading to enlightenment.

A beginner may give with the mistaken notion that there is a real giver, recipient, and the object given. However, the practice of giving only qualifies as the practice of the perfection of giving when there is no fixed notion of the giver, recipient, and the object given. A bodhisattva must be able to give without the thought or notion of the three factors—giver, recipient, and the thing given.

<h5>Discipline (''śīla'', ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་)</h5>

The discipline of the bodhisattva is often classified into three actions: abstaining from misdeeds, gathering virtues, and working for the welfare of sentient beings, as shown above. It is, in essence, the renunciation or giving up of negative thoughts, words, and deeds and the engagement in positive actions. A bodhisattva attains the perfection of discipline by perfecting the mind of such renunciation or relinquishment. As such, it serves as an antidote to immorality and unethical life.

Discipline is considered a fundamental basis for the growth of other virtuous qualities, just as the earth itself is important for cultivation. With discipline, one can engage in meditation and develop insight or wisdom. The practice of discipline includes both following the precepts and having the mental integrity to stick to the righteous course of actions.

In order to do so, Mahāyāna masters such as Śāntideva underscore the importance of vigilance or carefulness (''apramāda'', བག་ཡོད་), which is described in the Buddhist texts as a state of being attentive to what is to be adopted and what is to be abandoned. Śāntideva devotes the fourth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' to developing such carefulness or conscientiousness. Another crucial state of the mind is mindfulness (''smṛti'', དྲན་པ་). Mindfulness in this context refers to remembering and not forgetting "the dos and don'ts" with respect to one's moral conduct. It is important to always be mindful of the object and field of one's engagements. Introspection or alertness (''saṃprajanya'', ཤེས་བཞིན་) is another state of the mind which is crucial for bodhisattva discipline. Introspection watches the body, speech, and mind with alertness to check on what they are up to and how they are engaged.

These three aspects of the mind are crucial for a practitioner on the bodhisattva path. One must have mindfulness to be always aware of what is right or wrong, have vigilance and be very careful and heedful of the different areas of engagement, and maintain introspection to constantly watch one's mind, speech, and body.

Equipped with these tools, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must follow the precepts listed above after taking the bodhisattva vow. In addition, there are ten nonvirtuous actions to be eschewed and ten virtuous actions to be adopted as part of the general practice of Buddhist ethics. The ten nonvirtuous actions are:
#Taking life
#Taking what is not given
#Sexual misconduct for bodily actions
#Telling lies
#Creating discord
#Speaking harsh words
#Idle gossip for verbal actions
#Covetousness
#Malicious thoughts
#Wrong view for mental actions

As an antidote to these actions, a practitioner must adopt the ten virtuous actions:
#Protecting life
#Giving charity
#Practicing chastity for bodily actions
#Speaking the truth
#Making peace/conciliation
#Speaking kind words
#Engaging in useful speech for verbal actions
#Contentment
#Loving-kindness
#Right view for mental actions

There are many books in which a practitioner can find the moral precepts and code of ethics regarding a bodhisattva's behavior. These include ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', ''The Compendium of Training'', as well as ''The Thirty-Seven Practices of the Bodhisattva'' (རྒྱལ་སྲས་ལག་ལེན་སོ་བདུན་མ།). These texts summarize the very detailed and scattered presentations of the bodhisattva discipline in the Mahāyāna sūtras. Besides the moral codes, it is also important to have an effective routine for the practice of bodhisattva discipline. A twenty-four-hour day is normally divided into six periods, or "watches," and specific bodhisattva activities are allocated during those watches. Such disciplinary rules, depending on individual circumstances and needs, should make the life of a bodhisattva highly conducive and productive for the practice of the bodhisattva path.

Finally, a very important part of the practice of discipline is the ritual of making amends when one violates the precepts either consciously or unconsciously. For the transgression of root downfalls, or major violations, a practitioner must promptly make confessions and reparations before the end of the watch which follows the watch in which the lapse took place. If the major violation is not amended before the end of the following watch, then the bodhisattva is required to take the vow again. In order to make amends for all violations, a bodhisattva is advised, as explained earlier, to recite ''The Sūtra of the Three Heaps''.

<h5>Patience (''kṣānti'', བཟོད་པ་)</h5>
Patience is the third of the six perfections and is described as the hardest practice, one that requires unparalleled fortitude. In the philosophical descriptions one finds in the texts, patience is characterized by an undisturbed state of the mind. Not being agitated by conditions, particularly unpleasant ones, is the essence of patience. It serves as a counterforce to anger, which is a strong agitation of the mind and is considered to be the most heinous of evils.

First and foremost, the practitioner must reflect on the destructive nature of anger and the futility of getting angry. A moment of anger can consume the virtues accumulated throughout a thousand eons and cause great mental pain and discomfort. It deprives a person of peace and calm and the ability to work effectively. Like a bottle of muddy water shaken violently, an angry mind is disturbed and lacks composure and clarity to do anything effectively. On the contrary, patience brings mental calm and clarity. Śāntideva highlights the futility of getting upset in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' as follows:
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Having developed the conviction that getting upset and angry is only harmful and that patience is beneficial for inner peace and productivity, one must cultivate a patient and forbearing mind. From a traditional Buddhist point of view, anger, as the most heinous evil, also leads to rebirth in the lowest hells, where one will be tormented by pain and agony for eons, while patience leads to happy rebirths and particularly to future lifetimes with outstanding physical beauty. Even in this life, a peevish and angry person, even if a generous patron, is loathed and feared by others for his or her short temper, but a tolerant and serene person enjoys admiration and respect from others. Thus, the need for patience.

The practice of patience is divided into three based on the object of patience.
#Patience in tolerating harm doers
#Patience in bearing hardship
#Patience in understanding the teachings

The beings who cause harm and annoyance are the most obvious and common objects toward whom one must practice patience. "Without enemies, to whom can one practice patience," goes a Tibetan Buddhist saying.<ref>Similar sayings appear in a number of works: Atiśa's ''Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment'' (''Bodhipathapradīpa'') contains teachings about viewing enemies as valuable teachers for developing patience. The ''Thirty-Seven Practices of a Bodhisattva'' (''Rgyal sras lag len so bdun ma'') by Gyalse Tokme Zangpo contains similar teachings about viewing enemies as precious teachers. Likewise, such statements appear in chapter 6 of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra'') by Śāntideva.</ref> Such enemies and harm doers can be endless and diverse if one remains easily annoyed and irritable in one's own character. Śāntideva writes in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'':
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Knowing that the main solution to the many harms in the world lies in patience and forbearance, a bodhisattva must tolerate harm doers and not be upset by their harmful actions. One can do so with the broad view that the harm may be a result of one's own karma in past lifetimes and not a fault of the harm doer. By tolerating a small harm or annoyance in this life, one can expiate the negative karma and escape the terrifying consequences in the future.

Another way to cultivate patience is to know that the persons causing harm often do so under the influence of other factors, including their inner emotions and circumstances, over which they have no control. Thus, it is absurd to get upset at a person instead of having pity and compassion for them. In fact, due to one's negative karma, a harm doer causes harm, but in doing so the harm doer commits negative karma and begets more suffering in the lower realms. So, in reality, one does even greater harm to the harm doer by responding with anger instead of compassion. Thus, it is not right to be angry or upset at the harm doer.

Moreover, an incidence of harm such as one's body being struck by an enemy using a weapon is a result of a combination of many factors, including the body, weapon, enemy, anger, etc. So, why put the blame only on the person and not on the weapon? Furthermore, why only blame others who brandish the weapon and not oneself who brandishes the body? One must own a share of responsibility for having a body so prone to agony like a running sore. Using such moral and logical arguments, as presented in Śāntideva's writings, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must practice tolerance and forbearance of harm caused by other beings.

Another cause of frustration and anger is suffering and dissatisfaction in life. Although there may not be any personal agency, sentient beings get upset and angry at undesirable situations, such as illness, hunger, thirst, pain, and not getting the things one desires. A person on the bodhisattva path must practice patience in bearing hardship and suffering without giving in to frustration and anger. For this, one must reflect on the nature of existence and how it is filled with suffering and problems. Life in samsara is riddled with problems by nature. Thus, it will be nonsensical to expect it to be otherwise and get upset about it. How silly would it be to get angry at fire for being hot by nature?

Moreover, pain and problems are also subjective. Depending on the state of their mind, some brave men become more valiant upon seeing their own blood dripping, while timid people even faint upon seeing the blood of others. Thus, a practitioner must learn to be stoic and to disregard irritation because the one who is peevish sees more harm. A practitioner must also realize that existing problems may be hard to bear, but they are only a minor pain compared to the pain which anger begets. Such pain, like a small surgery to treat a serious ailment, is beneficial in the long run. It is likened to a prisoner on death row being freed with an arm chopped off.

Thus, a practitioner must not only face problems in life with a calm mind but also view pain and suffering as an important catalyst for spiritual transformation. As Śāntideva writes:
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Moreover, people go through various hardships and suffering even for petty worldly reasons such as material profit, political power, fame, marriage, or religious worship. What need is there to mention then the value of having fortitude and practicing patience to benefit sentient beings and to take them to the state of full enlightenment? A true hero is therefore someone who defeats the inner foe of anger and maintains calm and compassion even in the face of tragedy and great harm. The rest who defeat their enemies Śāntideva likens to stabbing a corpse.

Just as one must endure problems and suffering in life, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must also foster the courage and conviction to accept and fathom the true nature of reality and to align one's thoughts and deeds with truth. A bodhisattva must train to understand the true nature of phenomena, such as the impermanence of conditioned things, the interdependence of all phenomena, the absence of an inherent self or person, the selflessness of phenomena, the illusory nature of the world, and the ineffable, unobstructed, empty, open nature of the ultimate reality free from all conceptual fabrication. Actual practice and meditation on the ultimate nature will be discussed below under the perfection of wisdom.

As the practice of the third type of patience, a bodhisattva endures to know the truth through a rational and analytical approach instead of taking things for granted. Critical inquiry and analyses, such as in the aforementioned example about a person hitting another with a weapon, helps one overcome mistaken assumptions and inherent bias and see the true nature of things. It is through knowing the true nature of reality that one can appreciate the nexus of causes and conditions and thus tolerate the harms and problems in life as well as transcend to a higher level of insight. Thus, a practitioner takes up the third type of patience by having the unrelenting commitment to and confidence in the bodhisattva path of wisdom and compassion. A bodhisattva remains steadfast in upholding compassion to help all sentient beings and firm in his or her understanding and realization of the way things are. With this, a bodhisattva is then never tired of engaging in selfless service and never affected by the challenges, misfortunes, and vagaries of life.

Śāntideva also advises practitioners, toward the end of the sixth chapter of ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'', to practice patience and tolerance toward sentient beings, including harm doers, because they serve as agents for spiritual transformation. Without beings, one cannot possibly pursue the Mahāyāna path of compassion and altruism. Just as the Buddha helps one accumulate merit as an object of veneration, sentient beings also help one accrue merit through patience, giving, etc. Moreover, it is in pleasing sentient beings that we find the best way to please buddhas, who wholeheartedly cherish them. Getting angry at beings or harming them would displease the buddhas. Thus, it is very important for a follower of the Buddha to love and respect sentient beings in order to truly remain faithful to the Buddha. Moreover, even sentient beings possess buddha-nature and are worthy of veneration, not disdain and disrespect. Adopting such outlooks, values, and reasoning, the follower of the bodhisattva path practices tolerance and patience.

<h5>Diligence (''vīrya'', བརྩོན་འགྲུས་)</h5>
The fourth perfection is the perfection of enthusiasm, zeal, effort, or diligence. In Buddhist philosophy, it is defined as zeal or joy in virtuous actions, and it serves as an antidote to indolence. Śāntideva remarks that just as there cannot be motion without wind, there cannot be merit without diligence. The cultivation of diligence entails giving up the three kinds of indolence:
#Laziness, which is to be in the state of lethargy, sloth, and boredom
#Despondency, which is to be inactive through diffidence and lack of energy
#Negative addiction, which is to be preoccupied by unwholesome things

Wholesome diligence functions as an antidote to these three kinds of indolence. In order to overcome the first type of indolence, which involves being lazy, lethargic, and uninterested, one must cultivate interest, enthusiasm, and motivation in wholesome activities. A person on the bodhisattva path must be physically and mentally agile, enterprising, and diligent. To do so, one must develop some degree of remorse for the current situation in samsara and aim to reach a higher state of being. The Tibetan Buddhist practice of the four points of mind turning, including reflecting on the rarity and preciousness of humanhood, the impermanence of life, the efficacy of the law of cause and effect, and the flaws of the cycle of existence can help generate enthusiasm and motivation to seek full enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings.

A practitioner must reflect on the fortunate state of having obtained the precious and rare human birth and of having good health and all other necessary circumstances for seeking the higher goal of enlightenment. Reflecting on the precious and rare nature of such an opportunity to seek enlightenment, a practitioner must immediately plunge into the practice of the bodhisattva path. If one does not do so, one must realize that such fortunate human existence is fragile and bound to change any time. One must meditate on the impermanence and fragility of life and on how death can happen anytime. Thus, one must not waste one's precious life in laziness, slumber, or distraction. Śāntideva warns against such waste in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva''.
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In addition to fostering enthusiasm and effort through reflection on the precious nature of humanhood and impermanence, a practitioner can also reflect on the law of cause and effect. One must realize that happy, desirable results come about only by investing in the necessary causes of happiness and that suffering arises from engaging in the causes of suffering. Fully aware of the infallible nature of cause and effect, a practitioner must enthusiastically engage in wholesome actions and work hard in order to reap a good result. A practitioner must work hard to abandon negative actions in order to escape from suffering and reach nirvana. Similarly, a practitioner must contemplate the flaws of rebirth in samsara, such as not getting what is desirable, getting what is not desirable, encountering those one dislikes, and separation from those one likes. Beings in the lower realms of existence are afflicted by multiple forms of suffering, beings in happy realms suffer from inevitable change in situations, and all beings suffer from the stress of the constant pursuit of happiness.

In the traditional reflection on the faults of the cycle of existence, a practitioner meditates on the suffering of heat and cold in the hell realms, hunger and thirst among hungry ghosts, exploitation and predation in the animal kingdom, illness and old age among humans, strife and warfare among demigods, and death and downfall in the celestial realms. These reflections and harsh life experiences help in engendering motivation and zeal to engage in virtuous actions and seek the higher goal of enlightenment. A practitioner must also reflect on the bodhisattva oath taken earlier to place all sentient beings in buddhahood and now put forth effort to walk the talk.

Having overcome the first problem of laziness and sloth through such reflections, a practitioner must work on the second problem of diffidence and despondency. A practitioner must think of the endless cycle of hard work ordinary beings undertake even for petty worldly benefit and compare that with the noble work a bodhisattva has to undertake for the greater benefit of the world. Thinking of this noble cause and the limited effort and time required for it, one must feel emboldened and encouraged to engage in bodhisattva practice. In the traditional Buddhist worldview, one has gone through immeasurable suffering in countless lifetimes, resulting in no real benefit. The hard work and sweat on the bodhisattva path, however, is a limited and small pain which can bring forth a greater long-term benefit, like the pain of an incision to cure a serious illness.

Moreover, in order to overcome a lack of confidence, a practitioner must realize that even an insect, having buddha-nature as its nature, can reach buddhahood through effort. What need, then, to mention a human being who has the rational and emotional capacity to attain enlightenment. If one is afraid of the difficult bodhisattva practices such as giving one's body and limbs, such practices become easy and enjoyable with practice and habituation. The Buddha prohibits a bodhisattva from undertaking any endeavor beyond his or her mental capacity.

Thus, the bodhisattva path, if one is well-equipped with wisdom and compassion, is not a difficult task but a very pleasant and enjoyable enterprise. Śāntideva writes:
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Sin has been abandoned, thus there is no pain;
Through having wisdom there is no more sorrow. (7.27ab)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref>
}}
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=What can sadden those who have compassion,
Who remain within saṃsāra for the sake of beings? (7.28cd)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref>
}}
Furthermore, Śāntideva asks: "Which thoughtful person riding the horse of bodhicitta and having no fatigue would become despondent in going from joy to joy?"<ref>''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' 7.30. See also Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 101.</ref> He recommends the four forces of interest, steadfastness, joy, and relinquishment. One must cultivate the strong interest and wish to engage in virtuous actions, abandon negative actions, eliminate the suffering of sentient beings, and create happiness for all sentient beings. Such an interest is generated by thinking of the benefits of virtuous actions and the demerits of nonvirtuous actions. Once one has found such a strong interest and wish, one must remain firm and steadfast in the pursuit of happiness for all beings. One must maintain unwavering confidence and pride in the endeavor and not allow dejection and fatigue to set in. Taking up the challenge to defeat the negative emotions, a practitioner should not only remain steadfast but delve into the bodhisattva practice with joy and enthusiasm, like an elephant rushing to a lake in the midday heat or a gamer indulging in the game. Should a practitioner encounter insurmountable challenges or hardship or suffer from fatigue, then he or she should relinquish the specific task for the time being to be resumed at a later time when conditions are better.

Thus, a bodhisattva must adopt skill-in-means and be very strategic in terms of the appropriate investment of time and effort. Śāntideva also recommends the two strengths of earnestness and control to enhance the bodhisattva zeal. A bodhisattva must seek his or her objective with earnestness and immediate application. Just as a warrior who drops his sword in battle would pick it up promptly, and just as a young man would react quickly if a snake lands on his lap, a bodhisattva must act swiftly to achieve the goal. Similarly, a practitioner on the bodhisattva path must have a sense of control and power over things. Feeling confident and empowered and remaining very agile and aware, a bodhisattva must engage in the practice with confidence and flair, like a lion in the midst of foxes, and with nimbleness and full control over one's body and mind, just like a wind controlling the movement of a piece of cotton on a branch.

A major hindrance to enthusiasm and diligence in bodhisattva practice is attachment to and engagement in worldly and negative distractions. Śāntideva warns the practitioner:
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Knowing that if one is careless, negative tendencies and distractions spread fast like poison in the blood stream, one must exercise great caution and mindfulness in fighting negative temptations and distractions. Being mindful of one's practice and reprimanding oneself for even minor lapses, one must guard one's mind and awareness from defiling emotions, just like one protects one's eyes from dust. A practitioner must diligently practice the bodhisattva path by eschewing attachment to all negative activities.

<h5>Meditation (''dhyāna'', བསམ་གཏན་)</h5>
Meditative concentration is the fifth perfection. It is defined in the classical texts as the state of the mind remaining focused without any distraction. It is the mental ability to remain focused, calm, and unperturbed, and it serves as an antidote to distraction. As a distracted mind is very prone to afflictive emotions and ineffective in accomplishing any tasks, it is very important to develop the meditative concentration of the mind. Only when the mind is focused and has attained calm abiding can it effectively develop insight into the nature of reality and thereby eliminate the afflictive emotions and negative thoughts. Śāntideva puts this clearly in the following verse, which is very frequently quoted:
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The process of pursuing meditative concentration normally begins with practice in solitude, where one's body is free from the frenzy of the world and one's mind is free from mental preoccupation. Śāntideva advises:
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For a beginner working on cultivating meditative concentration, the Buddhist masters advise practitioners to find solitude without disturbance and distraction and to take up solitary retreat. Whether one finds a brief period in one's daily schedule or finds free time to undertake a long retreat lasting weeks, months, or years, the main objective should be to settle the distracted mind and attain mental concentration or calm abiding. As the main reason for not finding time for such solitary practice and cultivating calm abiding is one's preoccupation with worldly affairs, a practitioner is first instructed to give up desire for worldly life, including attachment to people and pursuit of wealth, fame, and power. Masters such as Śāntideva present a compelling account of the futility of worldly endeavors, including relationships and business, and the stress, disappointment, and pain they lead to in this life and the many sufferings in future lifetimes. Talking about people, relationships, and property, Śāntideva writes:
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Śāntideva sums up the flaws of worldly desire in this way:
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With such instructions and admonitions, a practitioner is made to reflect on the worthlessness of the worldly pursuit of wealth, fame, power, and relationships and how they often fuel more greed and stress, creating a vicious cycle of pain and suffering. Thus, a person on the bodhisattva path is encouraged to seek something more meaningful and fulfilling. A practitioner who wishes to attain calm abiding through meditation must curb greed, have contentment, and devote time to meditation.

The actual practice of meditative concentration to develop calm abiding forms a fundamental Buddhist practice, and there are many different meditation traditions and techniques for carrying out the practice. The most common classical procedure is the nine-step meditation technique for establishing calm abiding. Below is a table showing the nine steps in three stages, with the five defects to be removed, the eight antidotes and six powers to be adopted, the four phases of contemplation, and the five signs of progress, as explained by the nineteenth-century Tibetan polymath Mipham Namgyal Gyatso (མི་ཕམ་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་, 1846–1912) based on his ''Gateway to the Way of the Learned'' (མཁས་པའི་ཚུལ་ལ་འཇུག་པའི་སྒོ།) and ''Heart of Luminosity: The General Meaning of the Essence of the Secret'' (གསང་བ་སྙིང་པོའི་སྤྱི་དོན་འོད་གསལ་སྙིང་པོ།).

[[File:Chart for Karma practice piece.png|900px|class=w-100 m-0 rounded-xl shadow|]]

The detailed instructions for the development of calm abiding can be found in many different texts and meditation traditions. All of them start with physical posture, the most common being the Vairocana posture with seven features, including (1) crossed leg, (2) straight back, (3) slightly tilted neck, (4) open shoulders, (5) eyes on the nose tip, (6) tongue touching upper palate with lips just touching each other, and (7) hands on the lap. Being comfortably and firmly seated to give stability to the body, one may carry out the breathing exercise to clear one's breath. With the body, breath, and the mind calm and clear, one then starts focusing on an object, whether it is an external object like an image or a twig, an internal object like bodily sensations or the breath, or an imaginary object like a deity or mantra one has visualized.

To kick off such a practice, one must overcome the obstacles of indolence and forgetfulness. A person indulging in laziness or forgetful of the instructions for meditation cannot even start the process. Thus, at this initial phase of preparing meditation, one must have strong faith, interest, enthusiasm, and willingness to undertake meditative concentration. One can develop these qualities by studying and learning about the benefits of meditation. Having overcome the obstacles, one starts the practice of meditation with the initial focus, the first of the nine steps.

The practitioner continues to focus on the object with care and exertion. As the beginner's mind will forget the object and get distracted, one uses mindfulness and reflection to continue the focus. When the mind is distracted from the object, one must bring it back and repeat the focus with introspection and concerted effort. Like a wild horse being controlled with bridle and reins, the mind should be trained using mindfulness and introspection. One must overcome not only the obstacle of distraction but also torpor and sleepiness. As one maintains and repeats the focus, one will notice the mind moving very fast and flying off in a flash. This is the first sign of progress called "the experience of motion." At this point, the mind is like a waterfall, restless and nonstop.

As one persists in focusing on the object using the tools of mindfulness and introspection, the mind begins to become calm and tamed. This is the second sign of progress called "the experience of attainment." Here, the mind is like a stream on a steep slope, moving constantly but at a slower pace. As one persists in taming the mind, the obstacles of distraction and torpor also subside, but one would still need to put forth effort to maintain the focus. Using reflection, mindfulness, and introspection, one must continue to focus and tame the mind. This will lead to the mind becoming very pacified and to the third sign of progress called "the experience of becoming accustomed." At this stage, the mind is like a river on the plains, seemingly still while looking from afar but still moving with strong currents. It is like a bee trapped in a vase, generally in one place but still with a lot of movement. The focus is sometimes interrupted, but one must put forth effort to get back to meditative concentration.

With sustained effort, one nears the final phase of meditative concentration when the mind is thoroughly pacified and one can focus without any interruption and exertion. At this stage, showing exertion and making a contrived effort are obstacles. Thus, one remains in single-pointed concentration without any contrived effort. One would have the fourth sign of progress called "the experience of stability." Now, the mind is like an ocean, calm and unshaken in the core but with some motion on the surface. As one remains in such a state with mental equanimity and becomes very familiar with it, one attains meditative equipoise, and one sees the fifth and final sign of progress called "the experience of the perfection of meditation." The mind remains undisturbed in all situations, like a mountain which is not shaken by the winds. There is no effort required to maintain the meditative equipoise, and the practitioner enjoys extreme bliss and agility of the body and mind.

Different schools teach different methods of developing single-pointed concentration, or calm abiding. A very well-known practice for calm abiding today is the mindfulness of the body, which is popularly known as a body scan. Here, one focuses on the sensations in the body, either gradually from the crown of the head to the heels or on a specific part of the body, to develop concentration. Another common practice is the concentration on one's breath, including inhalation and exhalation. There are many techniques of focusing on the breath as one exhales and inhales. Many traditions also use external objects such as images, twigs, pebbles, leaves, etc. as an object of concentration. In some Tibetan Buddhist traditions, a meditator trains first by using ordinary objects such as leaves and twigs and then meditates on the image of the Buddha as a whole or on parts of the image in sequence. One can also visualize a letter or a deity figure as an object of meditation for calm abiding. In the Vajrayāna tradition, it is very common to use a representation of a deity, either in the form of physical artwork or as a mental picture of a deity or mantra, in order to develop concentration and calm abiding. The process of the nine-step meditation to attain calm abiding is also represented in art, with a monkey symbolizing the distracting mode of the mind and an elephant symbolizing the sinking mode of the mind.

{{InlineImage
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|img=Nine Stages of Shamatha Practice.png
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|caption=This thangka depicts the nine progressive stages of mental development. Source: [https://enlightenmentthangka.com/blogs/thangka/nine-stages-of-samatha-meditation?_pos=1&_sid=fbf1cb8ea&_ss=r Enlightenmentthangka.com]
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When one attains single-pointed concentration, the mind becomes pliable for spiritual transformation. This state of mind, considered to be equivalent to the mental state of beings in the highest desire realm, is the lowest form of concentration a practitioner needs to cultivate high spiritual realization and qualities. When such a state of mind is further sharpened, one acquires the mental states of the first, second, third, and fourth meditative absorptions with increasing levels of bliss, lucidity, pliability, and efficacy for spiritual transformation. These four states of meditative concentration are considered equivalent to the mental state of the four levels of the form realm in the psychophysical Buddhist cosmology. The power of concentration increases further with deeper levels of absorption. However, in the extreme form of quietest mental state in a sentient being associated with the highest formless realm of worldly existence, the mind is too deeply absorbed in meditation, rendering it too inactive and unviable for spiritual transformation.

Meditative concentration is thus divided according to the different levels of mental concentration. It is also classified into mundane meditative concentration and supramundane meditative concentration. If the meditative concentration is merely a calm state of the mind of a worldly person without the element of wisdom which discerns the nature of reality or truth, it is considered to be worldly meditative concentration. Such a state of the mind may be blissful and lucid, but it is bound to eventually return to an ordinary state of distraction and torpor. When the meditative concentration has the nature of reality as its object, it becomes an insight into truth and thus acquires the power of liberation. Such meditative concentration with truth as its object is a transcendent realization of truth and thus is considered to be the supramundane meditative concentration.

Meditative concentration is also divided into three categories:
#Meditative concentration abiding in peace in this life
#Meditative concentration which attains spiritual qualities
#Meditative concentration which works for sentient beings

The first type of meditative concentration is the mundane state of calm abiding. This comes with a blissful and peaceful experience for the meditator but is not instrumental in bringing about liberation, as it lacks insight. The second type is a meditative concentration informed by values and methods which have soteriological efficacy or some additional power to generate supernatural qualities. This type of meditative concentration can lead to supernatural powers such as clairvoyance or astral travel as well as higher qualities of enlightenment. The third type of meditative concentration is used to help sentient beings. The power of concentration helps one to perform miracles and create things which would benefit sentient beings.

The types of meditative concentration promoted in the Mahāyāna tradition are the second and third types, and the perfection of meditative concentration involves the application of a meditative concentration to the realization of the ultimate nature of things. Thus, it is a nonconceptual, open, and blissful cognitive equipoise which is free from all conceptual constructions and mental fabrications.

<h5>Wisdom (''prajñā'', ཤེས་རབ་)</h5>
The last and the most important of the six perfections is the perfection of wisdom. The sūtras on the perfection of wisdom claim that without wisdom none of the five other practices can really become a genuine practice of perfection. Thus, Śāntideva claims that the other perfections are means to the end, which is wisdom, for only wisdom can ultimately eliminate the root of suffering.
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Wisdom, in general, is the capacity for critical thinking and discernment of the way things are. Wisdom refers to the acute sense of judgement and sagacity when juxtaposed with compassion. However, in the specific context of Buddhist study and practice, wisdom refers to the understanding and realization of truth and the nature of reality, such as the knowledge and experience of nonself, impermanence, interdependence, and the emptiness of self-existence. In the Mahāyāna, the perfection of wisdom pertains to the knowledge and realization of the highest truth, the ultimate nature of things, whatever that is conceived to be in the particular tradition.

The Madhyamaka, or the Middle Way school of Nāgārjuna and his followers, such as Candrakīrti, Śāntideva, Śāntarakṣita and Atiśa—the philosophical system with which the Tibetan Buddhist tradition of bodhicitta practice is associated—expounds the perfection of wisdom as the knowledge of the emptiness of all phenomena. Wisdom, in this system, refers to the penetrating insight into the ultimate truth, which is defined as emptiness free from all extremes or fabrications. In their ultimate nature, things are neither existent, nor nonexistent, both, or neither. Ultimate nature is beyond production and cessation, birth and death, time and space, thoughts and words. Śāntideva elucidates this point in the following verse:
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The world exists only on a relative level as mere designations and conventions. On their ultimate level, everything is empty of their own being, and the perfection of wisdom is the knowledge of such emptiness. Such wisdom, then, is cultivated initially through study, then through contemplation, and eventually through meditation. Thus, wisdom is often classified into three categories:
#Wisdom through study
#Wisdom through reflection
#Wisdom through meditation

A practitioner starts the practice of the perfection of wisdom by studying and understanding the ultimate truth of emptiness. The classic texts of the Middle Way school, such as Nāgārjuna's ''Root Verses on the Middle Way'' (''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''), Candrakīrti's ''Introduction to the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakāvatāra''), Śāntarakṣita's ''Ornament of the Middle Way'' (''Madhyamakālaṃkāra''), and Śāntideva's ''Way of the Bodhisattva'' (''Bodhicaryāvatāra''), present numerous reductive and analytical arguments to establish the empty nature of all phenomena. Among the many arguments, the following five are known as the great reasoning of the Middle Way. They establish the emptiness of the causes, effects, both causes and effects, the nature of things, and of all aspects of phenomena.
#A vase is empty of true arising because it does not arise from itself, another, both, or nothing.
#A vase is empty of true production because neither an existent effect nor a nonexistent effect, both, or neither is produced.
#A vase is empty of true arising because it neither arises instantly nor arises gradually.
#A vase is empty of true nature because it is without the nature of one or many.
#A vase is empty of true nature because they are dependently originated.

A student of the Middle Way uses these and numerous other logical arguments and analyses to fully understand the emptiness of all things, including emptiness itself. Through persistent study and reflection, a practitioner gains a deep understanding and confidence in the nature of emptiness. With further reflection and familiarization, the practitioner develops a strong conviction that gradually turns into a direct experience and realization of emptiness—the true form of the perfection of wisdom.

Śāntideva's chapter on wisdom in ''The Way of the Bodhisattva'' presents the cultivation of wisdom through the common Buddhist practice of nonself and the four points of mindfulness.

<h5>Meditation on the Nonself of a Person</h5>
A person on the bodhisattva path must investigate the existence of the self, or "I," to which one is very attached. It is from the mistaken notion of the "I" that the notions of you, he, she, and they arise in contrast to this notion of "I." Such dualistic clinging leads to a like for oneself and what belongs to oneself and a dislike for others. This launches the cycle of attachment, aversion, and other afflictive emotions and actions. It is essential for a practitioner on the path to enlightenment to investigate the existence of the self in order to uproot the cause of samsara. Śāntideva provides the following instructions for such a reductive examination:
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Carrying out such analysis, a practitioner must thoroughly understand the absence of a self, or "I," in all beings. In his ''Introduction to the Middle Way'', Candrakīrti presents the sevenfold reasoning of the chariot to establish the emptiness of self. A chariot does not truly exist because it is not (1) identical, (2) heterogeneous, (3) possessive, (4) the located, (5) the locus, (6) the shape, or (7) the collection of the parts. The chariot is a mere label given to the assembly of the parts with a specific shape and a specific function. There is no real chariot other than the parts, and the parts do not exist other than their own parts. Similarly, a person is a mere designation given to the assembly of psychosomatic constituents in a specific structure performing a specific function. There is no real person, and all things are empty of a self or what belongs to a self. Śāntideva compares the person to a banana plant.
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{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=Wandering beings, thus, resemble dreams,
And also the banana tree, if you examine well. (9.150ab)<ref>Blankleder and Fletcher, ''Way of the Bodhisattva'', 158.</ref>
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Using such a rigorous analytical approach, a seeker of the perfection of wisdom must study and thoroughly understand the absence or emptiness of the self. The knowledge of nonself is an indispensable and central component of the Buddhist path to enlightenment. In Śāntideva's work and in the Middle Way school in general, such analyses and knowledge is further extended to understand the emptiness of all phenomena through the practice of the four points of mindfulness.

<h4>Mindfulness of the Body</h4>
A practitioner establishes the emptiness of the body by mentally dismembering the body in search of the body that we assume to really exist and that we deeply cherish. Śāntideva instructs a practitioner to look into the parts of the body in order to realize the emptiness of the body. The body does not exist either identical to or different from the parts. The same applies to the parts. He writes:
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The contemplation on the body helps one overcome one of the strongest fetters in existence: the attachment to the body. A bodhisattva must strive to give up attachment to the body and make use of it for the benefit of all sentient beings.

<h4>Mindfulness of Sensation</h4>
Another serious fetter in life is the attachment to pleasure and enjoyable sensations. Sentient beings crave pleasure and indulge in vices for pleasure. They hate pain and engage in negative actions to avoid pain and suffering. Thus, a practitioner of the bodhisattva path must see the empty nature of pleasure and pain. Śāntideva helps the practitioner investigate the experience of pain and pleasure by looking at the cause, effect, and nature of sensation.
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When one examines the nature of sensation, one can see that pain and pleasure are subjective, relative, and impermanent. If pain truly exists, there cannot be pleasure and vice versa. Because they rise and disappear like an illusion, there is no real pain or pleasure. Sensation arises from the encounter of senses and sense objects, but in reality we cannot see such an encounter or contact. One which has already touched cannot come into touch, and one which has not touched cannot contact either. With contact, there cannot be sensation. Similarly, there is no agent or person who can create and feel sensation. Śāntideva states:
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In this manner, the practitioner on the bodhisattva path must contemplate the empty nature of sensation and see all pain and pleasure to be like a magical illusion.

<h4>Mindfulness of the Mind</h4>
Just as there is no real painful or pleasant sensation and feeling, there is no real consciousness or mind. Śāntideva states:
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The mind plays the central role in the Buddhist spiritual system as the root cause and foundation of all things, so much so that Buddhism is often called a science of the mind or an art of mind training. The Buddha has claimed that the mind is the chief and everything is mind-made. In this respect, the knowledge of the emptiness of the mind is the most important form of wisdom. Through realizing the empty nature of the mind, one can realize the emptiness of all phenomena, as all phenomena have their base in the mind.

The meditation on the empty nature of the mind is one of the most important practices in Mahāyāna Buddhism, particularly in the Middle Way school, and there are many different methods and techniques for this meditation. One method is to examine the spatial location of the mind. Buddhist thinkers and mystics argue that this thing called the mind cannot be found within the body, without, or in between. Śāntideva remarks:
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In the Mahāyāna pith instructions on the emptiness of the mind, or what is known as mind-pointing instructions in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, the master instructs the disciple to search for the mind inside the body, outside the body, and in between. A practitioner is asked to investigate the spatial location of the mind, only to realize that the mind has no spatial existence or dimension. Similarly, the disciple is made to examine the shape, color, structure, or nature of the mind through an instruction called "the destruction of the mind's structure." Through this the practitioner realizes that the mind does not have concrete existence and is utterly empty of an independent existence.

Not only is the mind or consciousness not found anywhere or in any shape or form, it also does not arise, as it cannot arise before, after, or at the same time as its object. A consciousness has to be conscious of an object, but in reality it cannot be conscious of an object which exists before, after, or at the same time as the consciousness itself. Moreover, if the object that is cognized, such as the body, does not exist, how can the consciousness which cognizes exist, for they are dependent on each other.

In another very popular meditation on the empty nature of the mind, a practitioner examines the temporal existence of mind. The past mind does not exist because it has already ceased to exist, and the future mind cannot exist, as it is yet to be. There is no present mind to be found in any shape or color in between the past and the present. Thus, no mind can be found to truly exist if one carefully examines the case.

The meditation on the empty nature of the mind using different techniques forms the most sacred and powerful practice of the perfection of wisdom in the Tibetan Buddhist traditions. More detailed and personalized instructions, often in the form of oral transmissions, are normally sought from individual teachers. Thus, a sketch is presented here, but a practitioner must rely on a specific teacher for proper guidance in following traditional procedures.

<h4>Mindfulness of Phenomena</h4>
The fourth point of mindfulness is the emptiness of all phenomena. Using the same reductive analyses applied to the body, sensation, and mind, a practitioner meditates on the absence of the true existence of all phenomena. One can use the great reasonings of the Middle Way to cultivate the understanding of the empty nature of all phenomena or use some other arguments and methods. There are also many other techniques, particularly those belonging to the Vajrayāna tradition, such as completion stage practices, dream yoga, luminosity practice, and meditation on empty form in the Kālacakra, Mahāmudrā, and Dzogchen traditions, which are powerful methods to realize the emptiness of all phenomena.

The most common and persuasive method found in the literature of the Middle Way school to establish the emptiness of all phenomena is the reasoning of dependent origination. All phenomena lack self-existence because they are either dependently produced (e.g., a plant from a seed, soil, moisture, and heat) or dependently conceived (e.g., the concept "here" and "there"). Śāntideva aptly demonstrates this through the example of a parent and a child.
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He goes on to state that the mind which analyzes and the phenomena which it investigates are also mutually dependent and therefore in reality without true independent existence. Thus, just as the mind did not exist, all phenomena which it takes as its object also do not exist. They are assumed to exist based on convention.
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<h4>Freedom from All Fabrications</h4>
Using numerous logical arguments containing a rigorous reductive analysis, a practitioner contemplates how the body, sensation, mind, and, for that matter, all phenomena do not exist in real terms. The external world of matter is made up of atoms, and the internal world of consciousness is made up of moments of cognitive flashes and impulses. Yet, if one investigates the atoms and moments of consciousness using the reductive process of examination, they cannot be found to truly exist. In the same way, neither can any process of production, cessation, coming, going, etc. be found to exist. We assume everything to exist on a conventional level for transactional purposes, but nothing exists on the ultimate level when thoroughly examined. Not even "nothing" exists.

The initial focus of the meditation on emptiness should be to negate existence because sentient beings are fraught with the notion that things really exist and are either attached or averse to them. After clinging to things as real, they give rise to defiling emotions such as attachment and fear, which in turn leads to negative actions and suffering. Thus, the practitioners must put their initial emphasis on establishing that things are empty of inherent self-existence or real nature. Much of the logical procedures and meditation instructions focus on eliminating the notion of existence, establishing that all phenomena are empty of real existence, and revealing/concluding that all empirical experiences are like magical illusions and reflections in a mirror. They appear but are empty of real existence.

After one has negated the notion of existence and grasped the emptiness of things, it is also important to go beyond emptiness, for emptiness is also unreal and only a relative concept. How can there be nonexistence without existence? Just as there is no father without a child or here without there, emptiness is dependent on the nonempty. If the nonexistent does not exist, emptiness can't exist either. In this way, a practitioner drops both the notion of existence and nonexistence, being and nonbeing, is and is not, the nonempty and empty, production and nonproduction, etc.

In the final ontology of the Middle Way, one must reject any instances of a real existence, nonexistence, both, or neither. A practitioner must transcend all four mental fabrications of being, nonbeing, both and neither. Everything, including emptiness itself, is utterly empty and nonapprehensible, akin to the bare, clear openness of space. Only when the mind is free from fixation on a thing, non-thing, or neither does it naturally rest in its true state of peace, free from the slightest tension, stress, and apprehension. Only then can one effectively cut through the habitual propensities for self-love, attachment, hatred, stupidity, jealousy, etc.

It is said in ''The King of Meditation Absorption Sūtra'' (''Samādhirājasūtra''):
{{QuoteCite
|quote-text=What is "existence" and "nonexistence" are both extremes; so are "purity" and "impurity" extremes. Therefore, abandoning the extremes of both, the wise surely should not abide even in the middle.<ref>''yod dang med ces bya ba gnyi ga mtha<i>'</i>''/ /''gtsang dang mi gtsang 'di yang mtha' yin te''/ /''de phyir gnyis ka'i mtha' ni rnam spangs nas''/ /''mkhas pa dbus la'ang gnas par yong mi byed''/ /. See ''Samādhirājasūtra'' (''<i>'</i>Phags pa chos thams cad kyi rang bzhin mnyam pa nyid rnam par spros pa ting nge 'dzin gyi rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo''), in Derge Kangyur D127, mdo sde, vol. 55, da, fol. 27a. http://purl.bdrc.io/resource/MW22084_0127.</ref>
}}
In the ultimate meditation on wisdom, the practitioner immerses him or herself into a deep experience of emptiness with no sense of engagement or withdrawal, acceptance or rejection, likes or dislikes, pleasure or pain. During the postmeditation state, the practitioner is constantly aware of the illusory nature of things. Sustained practice of such meditation on emptiness and postmeditation awareness, Śāntideva points out, would not only help the person face the ups and downs of life with the same level of ease and equanimity but also induces an intense surge of compassion for the beings who are drowning in the sea of suffering. It inspires one to work evermore to free other beings who are caught in the prison of ignorance, mistakenly holding illusory and empty things to be real. Just as compassion for other beings leads to developing the wisdom to see things as they really are, wisdom and insight into the true nature of things helps enhance the vigor of compassion for all beings, thereby having wisdom and compassion mutually strengthen each other.
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